Chapter 6 THE BIRDS UNDER DOMESTICATION.

IT would hardly be supposed that the birds under domestication could inspire much poetical feeling, or indeed that they could furnish the dramatist with much imagery. Those, however, who may entertain this view, on reading the works of Shakespeare, must admit that in his case at least they are mistaken. The Cock, the Peacock, the Turkey, the Pigeon, the Goose, the Duck and the Swan, are all noticed in their turn, and indeed, in the ordinary list of poultry, hardly a species has escaped mention.

In the succeeding chapter, when treating of the game-birds, we shall notice the Pheasant, Partridge, and Quail, which are occasionally domesticated. For the present, it will be as well to confine our attention to the birds above mentioned.

THE COCK.

"The early village cock" (Richard III. Act v. Sc. 3), "the trumpet to the morn" (Hamlet, Act i. Sc. 1), is often noticed by Shakespeare. In the prologue to the fourth act of King Henry V.-

"The country cocks do crow, the clocks do toll,

And the third hour of drowsy morning name."

COCK-CROW.

Steevens has shown that the popular notion of a phantom disappearing at cock-crow is of very ancient date. The conversation of Bernardo, Horatio, and Marcellus, on the subject of Hamlet's ghost, affords a good illustration of this:-

"Bern. It was about to speak, when the cock crew!

Hor. And then it started like a guilty thing

Upon a fearful summons. I have heard,

The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,

Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat

Awake the god of day; and, at his warning,

Whether in sea or fire, in earth or air,

The extravagant90 and erring spirit hies

To his confine: and of the truth herein,

This present object made probation.

Mar. It faded on the crowing of the cock.

Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes

Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated,

The bird of dawning singeth all night long:

And then, they say, no spirit dare stir abroad;

The nights are wholesome; then no planets strike,

No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm,

So hallow'd and so gracious is the time."

Hamlet, Act i. Sc. 1.

"Hark! hark! I hear the strain of strutting chanticleer cry cockadidle-dowe."-Tempest, Act i. Sc. 2.

Just as "cock-crow" denotes the early morning, so is "cock-shut-time" or "cock-close," expressive of the evening; although some consider that the latter phrase owes its origin to the practice of netting woodcocks at twilight, that is, shutting or enclosing them in a net.

COCK-A-HOOP.

The origin of the phrase "cock-a-hoop," which occurs in Romeo and Juliet, Act i. Sc. 5, is very doubtful: the passage is-

"You'll make a mutiny among my guests!

You will set cock-a-hoop! you'll be the man!"

Some commentators consider that this refers in some way to the boastful crowing of the cock, but we do not think that Shakespeare intended any allusion here to the game-fowl. We take it that the reference is to a cask of ale or wine, and that the phrase "to set cock-a-hoop" means to take the cock, or tap, out of the cask and set it on the hoop, thus letting all the contents escape. The man who would do such a reckless act, would be just the sort of man to whom Shakespeare refers.

The ale-house sign of "The Cock and Hoop" represents a game-fowl standing upon a hoop, but we have little doubt that the original sign was a cask flowing, with the tap laid on the top. The modern version is no doubt a corruption, just as we have "The Swan with Two Necks" for "The Swan with Two Nicks," i.e. marks on the bill to distinguish it; "The Devil and the Bag o' Nails" for "Pan and the Bacchanals;" "The Goat and Compasses" for the ancient motto "God encompasseth us;" &c., &c.91

COCK AND PYE.

The popular adjuration, "by cock and pye," which Shakespeare has put in the mouth of Justice Shallow, was once supposed to refer to the sacred name, and to the table of services, called "the pie;" but it is now thought to be what Hotspur termed a mere "protest of pepper gingerbread," as innocent as Slender's, "By these gloves," or, "By this hat." In "Soliman and Perseda" (1599), it occurs coupled with "mousefoot;"-"By cock and pye and mousefoot." Again, in "The Plaine Man's Pathway to Heaven," by Arthur Dent (1607), we have the following dialogue:-

Asunetus.-"I know a man that will never swear but by cock or py, or mousefoot. I hope you will not say these be oaths. For he is as honest a man as ever brake bread. You shall not hear an oath come out of his mouth."

Theologus.-"I do not think he is so honest a man as you make him. For it is no small sin to swear by creatures."

The Cock and Pye (i.e. Magpie) was an ordinary ale-house sign, and may thus have become a subject for the vulgar to swear by. Douce, however, ascribes to it a less ignoble origin, and his interpretation is too ingenious to be passed over in silence:-"It will no doubt be recollected that in the days of ancient chivalry it was the practice to make solemn vows or engagements for the performance of some considerable enterprise. This ceremony was usually performed during some grand feast or entertainment, at which a roasted peacock or pheasant being served up by ladies in a dish of gold or silver, was thus presented to each knight, who then made the particular vow which he had chosen with great solemnity. When this custom had fallen into disuse, the peacock nevertheless continued to be a favourite dish, and was introduced on the table in a pie, the head, with gilded beak, being proudly elevated above the crust, and the splendid tail expanded. Other birds of less value were introduced in the same manner, and the recollection of the old peacock vows might occasion the less serious, or even burlesque, imitation of swearing not only by the bird itself, but also by the pye; and hence, probably, the oath 'by cock and pye,' for the use of which no very old authority can be found."

Shallow. "By cock and pye, sir, you shall not away to-night."-Henry IV. Part II. Act v. Sc. 1.

COCK-FIGHTING.

The pastime of cock-fighting, to which Shakespeare has alluded in Antony and Cleopatra, is no doubt of some antiquity. Strutt, in his "Sports and Pastimes of the People of England," does not give any history of its introduction, but quotes from Burton (1660), and Powell (1696), to show that the sport was well known at those dates. It was much in vogue in Shakespeare's day, and the great dramatist is probably not wrong in leading us to suppose that it was first introduced by the Romans:-

"His cocks do win the battle still of mine,

When it is all to nought."

Antony and Cleopatra, Act ii. Sc. 3.

"Cock-fighting took place generally between August and May. Six weeks before a battle, the champions were confined in separate pens, and fed with bread. Their spurs were then wrapped in leather, and they were allowed to spar, and sweated in straw baskets, and fed with sugar-candy, chopped rosemary, and butter, to strengthen them and give them wind. Roots dipped in wine, and oatmeal kneaded with ale and eggs, were also allowed them, as purges and diaphoretics. Every day the feeder had to lick his bird's eye, and lead and encourage him to pursue a dunghill fowl which he held in his arms, and ran with before him. The last fortnight the sparring was discontinued, and four days next allowed before the bird was brought into the pit, and always fasting.

"In matching birds, it was necessary to consider their strength and length-the weak, long bird rising with more ease, and the short, strong bird giving the surer and deadlier blow.

"The game cocks were prepared for battle by cutting off the mane all but a small ruff, and clipping off the feathers from the tail. The wings were cut short, and sharp points left, to endanger the eye of the antagonist. The spurs were scraped and sharpened, but steel spurs were not used at this early period, though the sport was as old as the Athenians. The preparation was completed by removing all the feathers from the crown of the head. The feeder, then licking his pupil all over, turned him into the pit, to win his gold and move his fortune.

"The birds were generally brought into the arena in linen bags, in which they came from Norwich or Wisbeach.

"They began the combat by whetting their beaks upon the ground, and continued the fight till they were both blind, or faint from loss of blood. The feeder had to suck the wounds of the living bird, and powder them with dust of the herb Robert. If the eye were hurt, the cocker chewed ground ivy, and applied the juice to the wound."92

ANCESTRY OF DOMESTIC COCK.

Whether the various breeds of domestic fowls have diverged by independent and different roads from a single type, which is most probable, or whether they have descended from several distinct wild species, as some naturalists maintain, is a question which can scarcely be answered in the present treatise. A separate volume might be written on the subject. Nevertheless, the general opinion is that all the various breeds have descended from a common wild ancestor-the Gallus bankiva of India. This species has a wide geographical range. It inhabits Northern India as far west as Scinde, and ascends the Himalaya to a height of 4,000 feet. It is found in Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, the Indo-Chinese countries, the Philippine Islands, and the Malayan Archipelago, as far eastward as Timor. Mr. Darwin has shown93 that it varies considerably in the wild state, and observes94 that "from the extremely close resemblance in colour, general structure, and especially in voice, between Gallus bankiva and the game-fowl; from their fertility, as far as this has been ascertained, when crossed; from the possibility of the wild species being tamed, and from its varying in the wild state, we may confidently look at it as the parent of the most typical of all the domestic breeds, namely, the game-fowl. It is a significant fact that almost all the naturalists in India, namely, Sir W. Elliot, Mr. S. N. Ward, Mr. Layard, Mr. T. C. Jerdon, and Mr. Blyth, who are familiar with Gallus bankiva, believe that it is the parent of most or all of our domestic breeds."

THE PEACOCK.

Another species of Eastern origin noticed by Shakespeare is the Peacock (Pavo cristatus):-

"Let frantic Talbot triumph for awhile,

And, like a peacock, sweep along his tail;

We'll pull his plumes and take away his train."

Henry VI. Part I. Act iii. Sc. 3.

And elsewhere-

"Why, he stalks up and down like a peacock,-a stride and a stand."-Troilus and Cressida, Act iii. Sc. 3.95

?lian says peacocks were brought into Greece from some barbarous country, and were held in such estimation that a pair was valued at Athens at 1,000 drachm?, or ￡32 5s. 10d. Peacocks' crests in ancient times were among the ornaments of the Kings of England.

Ernald de Aclent paid a fine to King John in 150 palfreys, with sackbuts, lorains, gilt spurs, and peacocks' crests, such as would be for his credit.

Whether our birds are descended from those introduced into Europe in the time of Alexander, or have been subsequently imported, is doubtful. They vary but little under domestication, except in sometimes being white or piebald.96

ITS INTRODUCTION.

A curious fact with respect to the peacock may here be noticed, namely, the occasional appearance in England of the "japanned" or "black-shouldered" kind. This form has been regarded by Mr. Sclater as a distinct species, under the name of Pavo nigripennis, and he believes it will hereafter be found wild in some country, but not in India, where it is certainly unknown.97 These japanned birds differ conspicuously from the common peacock, and can be propagated perfectly true. Nevertheless, Mr. Darwin gives it as his opinion that "the evidence seems to preponderate strongly in favour of the black-shouldered breed being a variation, induced either by the climate of England, or by some unknown cause, such as reversion to a primordial and extinct condition of the species."98

Formerly the peacock was in much request for the table, but now-a-days the species appears to be preserved for ornament rather than use. According to the "Northumberland Household Book," the price of a peacock for the table in 1512 was twelvepence; but we must recollect that this was a much larger sum in those days than it is now considered to be.

THE TURKEY.

Shakespeare has committed a curious anachronism in introducing the domestic Turkey in the play of Henry IV., the species being unknown in England until the later reign of Henry VIII. The passage referred to runs thus:-

First Carrier. "'Odsbody! the turkeys in my pannier are quite starved. What, ostler!"-Henry IV. Part I. Act ii. Sc. 1.

ITS INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND.

The turkey was imported into Spain by the Spanish discoverers in the New World, early in the sixteenth century, its wild prototype being the Gallipavo Mexicana of Gould, and from Spain it was introduced into England in 1524. In 1525 a rhyme was composed, celebrating the introduction of this bird, as well as other good things, into this country:-

"Turkies, carps, hoppes, piccarell, and beere,

Came into England all in one yeare."99

A writer in the "Encyclop?dia Britannica" says:-

"This fowl was first seen in France in the reign of Francis I., and in England in that of Henry VIII. By the date of the reigns of these monarchs, the first turkies must have been brought from Mexico, the conquest of which was completed A.D. 1521."100

"These facts," observes Mr. Blyth,101 "are generally known, but not the fact for which there is abundant evidence, that the domestic turkey was introduced from Europe into the North American colonies, where a kindred wild species abounded in the forest."

TURKEY-FOWL AND GUINEA-FOWL.

The origin of the English name turkey, as applied to a bird indigenous to America, has provoked much discussion. The best explanation is that given by Mr. Blyth, in the work last quoted102:-

"It is certain," he says, "that the Guinea-fowl was commonly termed the Turkey-hen in former days, and hence a difficulty sometimes in knowing which bird is meant by sundry old authors. As the Portuguese discoveries along the west coast of Africa preceded those of the Spaniards in America, there is reason to infer that our British ancestors became acquainted with the guinea-fowl prior to their knowledge of the turkey; and the English trade being then chiefly with the Levantine countries, our ancestors may well have fancied that it came from thence. Referring to a curious old dictionary in my possession (published in 1678) for the word Melcagris, I find it translated 'a Guinny or Turkey Hen:' Gallin? African? sen Numidic?, Var. 'sine qu? vulgo Indic?' (Coq d'Inde of the French, corrupted into Dinde and Dindon!). Again, Numidica guttata of Martial is rendered 'a Ginny or Turkey Hen.' Looking also into an English and Spanish Dictionary of so late a date as 1740, I find Gallipavo rendered 'a Turkey or Guinea Cock or Hen.' Well, it is known that our British forefathers originally derived the domestic turkey from Spain, and meanwhile they are likely to have obtained a knowledge of the true habitat of the guinea-fowl, and therefore may very probably have supposed the former to be the real turkey-fowl, as distinguished from the guinea-fowl; and if the word 'fowl' be dropped in the one instance and not in the other, be it remembered that there was another special meaning for the word Guinea, having reference to the Gold Coast, otherwise the bird might have come to be known as the 'guinea,' as the bantam-fowl is now currently designated the 'bantam,' and the canary-bird as the 'canary,' or the turkey-fowl the 'turkey.' The Latin-sounding name Gallipavo seems to be of Spanish origin, and obtains among the Spaniards to this day; but their earliest name for it was 'Pavon de las Indias,' 'c'est-à-dire,' as Buffon remarks, 'Paon des Indes Occidentales;' which explains the reference to India perpetuated in 'Dindon.'"

The turkey is again mentioned by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night, where Fabian, speaking of Malvolio to Andrew Aguecheek, says:-

"Contemplation makes a rare turkey-cock of him: how he jets under his advanc'd plumes!"-Twelfth Night, Act ii. Sc. 5.

THE PIGEON:

The Pigeon and the Dove are repeatedly mentioned in the works of Shakespeare, although on different grounds. The former bird is noticed as a letter-carrier (Titus Andronicus, Act iv. Sc. 3), as an article of food (Henry IV. Part II. Act v. Sc. 1), and as an example of conjugal fidelity and attachment to offspring (As You Like It, Act i. Sc. 2, and Act iii. Sc. 3). The latter is alluded to as the emblem of peace (Henry IV. Part I. Act iv. Sc. 1.; Henry VIII. Act iv. Sc. 1), modesty (Taming of the Shrew, Act iii. Sc. 2), patience (Hamlet, Act v. Sc. 1), innocence (Henry VI. Part II. Act iii. Sc. 1), fidelity (Troilus and Cressida, Act iii. Sc. 2; Winter's Tale, Act iv. Sc. 3), and love (Venus and Adonis; Henry VI. Part I. Act ii. Sc. 2; Romeo and Juliet, Act ii. Sc. 5).

In one passage only is the word "dove" used synonymously for "pigeon." In Romeo and Juliet we are told of the nurse "sitting in the sun under the dove-house wall" (Act i. Sc. 3).

ITS EARLY DOMESTICATION.

The practice, here alluded to, of keeping pigeons in a domesticated state is of very ancient date. Mr. Darwin has been at considerable pains to collect information upon this point, and in his admirable work "On the Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," he gives the following results:-

PIGEON-FANCIERS.

"The earliest record, as has been pointed out to me by Professor Lepsius, of pigeons in a domesticated condition, occurs in the fifth Egyptian dynasty, about 3000 B.C.; but Mr. Birch, of the British Museum, informs me that the pigeon appears in a bill of fare in the previous dynasty.103 Domestic pigeons are mentioned in Genesis, Leviticus, and Isaiah. In the time of the Romans, as we hear from Pliny, immense prices were given for pigeons; 'nay, they are come to this pass, that they can reckon up their pedigree and race.' In India, about the year 1600, pigeons were much valued by Akber Khan: 20,000 birds were carried about with the court, and the merchants brought valuable collections. 'The monarchs of Iran and Turan sent him some very rare breeds. His Majesty,' says the courtly historian, 'by crossing the breeds, which method was never practised before, has improved them astonishingly. Akber Khan possessed seventeen distinct kinds, eight of which were valuable for beauty alone. At about this same period of 1600, the Dutch, according to Aldrovandus, were as eager about pigeons as the Romans had formerly been. The breeds which were kept during the fifteenth century in Europe and in India, apparently differed from each other. Tavernier, in his 'Travels,' in 1677, speaks as does Chardin, in 1735, of the vast numbers of pigeon-houses in Persia; and the former remarks, that as Christians were not permitted to keep pigeons, some of the vulgar actually turned Mahometans for this sole purpose. The Emperor of Morocco had his favourite keeper of pigeons, as is mentioned in Moore's treatise, published 1737. In England, from the time of 1678 to the present day, as well as in Germany and in France, numerous treatises have been published on the pigeon. In India, about a hundred years ago, a Persian treatise was written; and the writer thought it no light affair, for he begins with a solemn invocation, 'In the name of God, the gracious and merciful.' Many large towns in Europe and the United States now have their societies of devoted pigeon-fanciers: at present there are three such societies in London. In India, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, the inhabitants of Delhi and of some other great cities are eager fanciers. Mr. Layard informs me that most of the known breeds are kept in Ceylon. In China, according to Mr. Swinhoe of Amoy, and Dr. Lockhart of Shanghai, carriers, fantails, tumblers, and other varieties are reared with care, especially by the bonzes, or priests.

"The Chinese fasten a kind of whistle to the tail-feathers of their pigeons, and as the flock wheels through the air, they produce a sweet sound.104 In Egypt, the late Abbas Pacha was a great fancier of fantails. Many pigeons are kept at Cairo and Constantinople, and these have lately been imported by native merchants, as I hear from Sir W. Elliot, into Southern India, and sold at high prices.

"The foregoing statements show in how many countries, and during how long a period, many men have been passionately devoted to the breeding of pigeons."105

CARRIER-PIGEONS.

In Titus Andronicus (Act iv. Sc. 3), upon the entry of a clown with two pigeons Titus exclaims:-

"News, news from heaven! Marcus, the post is come.

Sirrah, what tidings? have you any letters?"

The practice of using pigeons as letter-carriers, here alluded to by Shakespeare, is doubtless of very ancient origin. The old historian Diodorus Siculus, informs us that above two thousand years ago they were employed for this purpose; and five hundred years since relays of carrier-pigeons formed part of a telegraphic system adopted by the Turks. "Regular chains of posts were established, consisting of high towers between thirty and forty miles asunder, provided with pigeons, and sentinels stood there constantly on the watch, to secure the intelligence communicated by the birds as they arrived, and to pass it on by means of others. The note was written on a thin slip of paper, enclosed in a very small gold box, almost as thin as the paper itself, suspended to the neck of the bird; the hour of arrival and departure were marked at each successive tower, and for greater security a duplicate was always despatched two hours after the first. The despatches were, however, not always enclosed in gold, but merely in paper, in which case, to prevent the letters being defaced by damp, the legs of the pigeon were first bathed in vinegar, with a view to keep them cool, so that they might not settle to drink, or wash themselves on the way, which in that hot climate they were often doing."

PIGEON-POST.

The modern mode of transmitting messages by pigeon-post is much more ingenious, and less irksome to the bird. The slip of paper is rolled up very tightly, and inserted in a small quill, which is stitched to one of the tail-feathers.

Formerly it was not an uncommon thing to send a pair of doves or pigeons as a present-

"I have brought you a letter and a couple of pigeons here."-Titus Andronicus, Act iv. Sc. 4.

The constancy evinced by pigeons towards each other, when paired, has been already referred to. (As You Like It, Act iii. Sc. 3; Winter's Tale, Act iv. Sc. 3, &c.)

"PIGEON-LIVER'D."

It has been stated that the absence of a gall-bladder in pigeons is compensated for by the extraordinary development of the crop, by the aid of which the food becomes so thoroughly digested, that the gall is rendered unnecessary. This, however, is not strictly correct, as the food is only macerated in the crop; and the gall, as it is secreted, passes, by two ducts, from the liver into the duodenum, instead of into a gall-bladder. Shakespeare has alluded to this peculiarity in the digestive organs of pigeons in Hamlet, where the Prince says:-

"I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall

To make oppression bitter."

Hamlet, Act ii. Sc. 2.

The manner in which they feed their young, to which allusion is made in As You Like It (Act i. Sc. 2), is very remarkable.

Most birds collect for their young, but in the case of pigeons and some others, there exists a provision very similar to that of milk in quadrupeds. "I have discovered," says John Hunter,106 "in my enquiries concerning the various modes in which young animals are nourished, that all the dove kind are endowed with a similar power.

"AS PIGEONS FEED THEIR YOUNG."

"The young pigeon, like the young quadruped, till it is capable of digesting the common food of its kind, is fed with a substance secreted for that purpose by the parent animal; not, as in the mammalia, by the female alone, but also by the male, which perhaps furnishes this nutriment in a degree still more abundant.

"It is a common property of birds, that both male and female are equally employed in hatching and in feeding their young in the second stage, but this particular mode of nourishment, by means of a substance secreted in their own bodies, is peculiar to certain kinds, and is carried on in the crop.

"Besides the dove kind, I have some reason to suppose parrots to be endowed with the same faculty, as they have the power of throwing up the contents of the crop, and feeding one another.

"I have seen the cock parrakeet regularly feed the hen, by first filling his own crop, and then supplying her from his beak. Parrots, macaws, cockatoos, &c., when they are very fond of the person who feeds them, may likewise be observed to have the action of throwing up the food, and often do it. The cock pigeon, when he caresses the hen, performs the same kind of action as when he feeds his young, but I do not know if at this time he throws up anything from the crop.

"During incubation, the coats of the crop in the pigeon are gradually enlarged and thickened, like what happens to the udder of females of the class mammalia, in the term of uterine gestation. On comparing the state of the crop when the bird is not sitting, with its appearance during incubation, the difference is very remarkable. In the first case it is thin and membranous, but by the time the young are about to be hatched, the whole, except what lies on the trachea or windpipe, becomes thickened, and takes on a glandular appearance, having its internal surface very irregular. It is likewise evidently more vascular than in its former state, that it may convey a quantity of blood, sufficient for the secretion of this substance, which is to nourish the young brood for some days after they are hatched. Whatever may be the consistence of this substance when just secreted, it most probably soon coagulates into a granulated white curd, for in such a form I have always found it in the crop; and if an old pigeon is killed just as the young ones are hatching, the crop will be found as above described, and in its cavity pieces of white curd, mixed with some of the common food of the pigeon, such as barley, beans, &c.

"If we allow either of the parents to feed the young, its crop, when examined, will be discovered to contain the same curdled substance, which passes thence into the stomach, where it is to be digested. The young pigeon is fed for some time with this substance only, and about the third day some of the common food is found mingled with it; and as the pigeon grows older, the proportion of common food is increased, so that by the time it is seven, eight, or nine days old, the secretion of the curd ceases in the old ones, and of course will no more be found in the crop of the young.

"It is a curious fact that the parent pigeon has at first the power to throw up this curd without any mixture of common food, although afterwards both are thrown up according to the proportion required for the young ones. I have called this substance curd, not as being literally so, but as resembling that more than anything I know; it may, however, have a greater resemblance to curd than we are perhaps aware of; for neither this secretion, nor curd from which the whey has been pressed, seem to contain any sugar, and do not run into the acetous fermentation. The property of coagulating is confined to the substance itself, as it produces no such effect when mixed with milk. This secretion in the pigeon, like all other animal substances, becomes putrid by standing, though not so readily as either blood or meat, it resisting putrefaction for a considerable time; neither will curd much pressed become so putrid as soon as either blood or meat."

Selby says,107 "The young remain in the nest till they are able to fly, and are fed by the parent birds, who disgorge into their mouths the food that has undergone a maceration, or semi-digestive process, in that part of the ?sophagus usually called the crop or craw."

Colonel Montagu appears to be one of the few original observers who has confirmed the account given by Hunter. "The rook," he says, "has a small pouch under the tongue, in which it carries food to its young. It is probable the use of the craw may be extended further than is generally imagined, for, besides the common preparation of the food to assist its digestion in the stomach, there are some species that actually secrete a lacteal substance in the breeding season, which, mixing with the half-digested food, is ejected to feed and nourish the young. The mamm? from which this milky liquor is produced, are situated on each side of the upper part of the breast, immediately under the craw. In the female turtle-dove we have met with these glands tumid with milky secretion, and we believe it common to both sexes of the dove genus."108

THE BARBARY PIGEON.

It is not surprising that so great an authority on the subject as Mr. Tegetmeier should have adverted to Shakespeare's knowledge of these birds. At p. 133 of his work upon Pigeons,109 he says:-"The Barb, or Barbary Pigeon, is one of those varieties whose history can be traced back for a considerable period: it was certainly well known in England during the sixteenth century, for Shakespeare, in As You Like It, which was entered at Stationers' Hall in 1600, makes Rosalind, when disguised as a youth, say, 'I will be more jealous of thee than a Barbary cock-pigeon over his hen.'-Act iv. Sc. 1. Our intercourse with the north of Africa was at that period not unfrequent, and many of the domestic animals of the district had been imported into this country. Shakespeare frequently alludes to Barbary horses; and in the Second Part of King Henry IV. Act ii. Sc. 4, makes Falstaff say, 'He's no swaggerer, hostess ... he'll not swagger with a Barbary hen, if her feathers turn back with any show of resistance.' This allusion was most probably to a frizzled fowl. In this singular variety the feathers upon the head and neck are reversed or curled, which gives the hen at all times the appearance of a cock in fighting attitude. Hence Shakespeare's apt allusion."

THE ROCK-DOVE.

There seems to be no doubt that all the various races of the domestic pigeon are descended from a single stock, namely, the wild rock-pigeon (Columba livia). A mass of interesting evidence on this subject will be found in Darwin's "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i. chap. 5.

Frequent allusion has been made by Shakespeare to the "Doves of Venus" (Lucrece, Venus and Adonis, and Midsummer Night's Dream, Act i. Sc. 1), and "Venus' Pigeons" (Merchant of Venice, Act ii. Sc. 6).

THE DOVES OF VENUS.

Some explanation of this is to be found in the following passage from Venus and Adonis:-

"Thus weary of the world, away she (Venus) hies,

And yokes her silver doves; by whose swift aid

Their mistress, mounted, through the empty skies

In her light chariot quickly is convey'd;

Holding their course to Paphos, where their queen

Means to immure herself and not be seen."

This will also explain the reference to

"The dove of Paphos."

Pericles, Act iv. Introd.

The towns of Old and New Paphos are situate on the S.W. extremity of the coast of Cyprus. Old Paphos is the one generally referred to by the poets, being the peculiar seat of the worship of Venus, who was fabled to have been wafted thither after her birth amid the waves. The "dove of Paphos" therefore, may be considered as synonymous with the "dove of Venus." Sometimes by Paphos is understood the city of Cyprus, which is said to have been founded by Paphos, son of Pygmalion, and was known by his name:-

"Illa Paphon genuit: de quo tenet insula nomen."

Ovid Metam. Bk. 10, Fab. 8.

The Turtle-dove (Columba turtur) has been noticed by poets in all ages as an emblem of love and constancy.

Shakespeare has-

"When arm in arm they both came swiftly running,

Like to a pair of loving turtle-doves."

Henry VI. Part I. Act ii. Sc. 2.

And elsewhere-

"So turtles pair that never mean to part."

Winter's Tale, Act iv. Sc. 3.

Again-

"As true as steel, as plantage to the moon,

As sun to day, as turtle to her mate."

Troilus and Cressida, Act iii. Sc. 2.

PLANTAGE.

An inquiry into the meaning of the word plantage leads to some curious information. Archdeacon Nares observes110 that "plantage" is probably for anything that is planted. Plants were supposed to improve as the moon increased, and from an old book entitled "The Profitable Art of Gardening," by Thos. Hill, the third edition of which was printed in 1579, we learn that neither sowing, planting, nor grafting was ever undertaken without a scrupulous attention to the increase or waning of the moon. Dryden does not appear to have understood the above passage, and has accordingly altered it to "As true as flowing tides are to the moon." But the meaning of the original words seem sufficiently clear, and may be fully illustrated by the following quotation from Scott's "Discoverie of Witchcraft":-"The poore husband man perceiveth that the increase of the moone maketh plants frutiful, so as in the full moone they are in the best strength; decaieing in the wane, and in the conjunction do utterlie wither and vade."

The following lines from Pericles are somewhat to the point:-

"How dare the plants look up to heaven, from whence

They have their nourishment?"

Pericles, Act i. Sc. 2.

MAHOMED'S DOVE.

It is possible that particular reference may be had to the plant "Honesty," or "Lunary" (Lunaria), which was so named from the circular shape of its pod, which was thought to resemble the moon (Luna), not only in its form, but in its silvery brightness. The title of "Honesty" appears to have been given it from the transparent nature of the pod, which discovers those seed-vessels that contain seed from such as are barren or have shed their seed. We learn from Chaucer that "Honesty" (Lunaria), was one of the plants used in incantations. Drayton calls it "Lunary":-

"Then sprinkles she the juice of rue,

With nine drops of the midnight dew

From Lunary distilling."

Nymphid.

EMBLEMS.

But to return to our doves. It is related that Mahomed had a dove which he used to feed with wheat out of his ear, which dove, when it was hungry, lighted on Mahomed's shoulder and thrust its bill in to find its breakfast, Mahomed persuading the rude and simple Arabians that it was the Holy Ghost that gave him advice.111 Hence Shakespeare's query-

"Was Mahomed inspired with a dove?"

Henry VI. Part I. Act i. Sc. 2.

As the crow has been held the type of blackness, so has the dove been considered the emblem of the opposite colour:-

"So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows,

As yonder lady o'er her fellows shows."

Romeo and Juliet, Act i. Sc. 5.

"As soft as dove's down, and as white as it."

Winter's Tale, Act iv. Sc. 4.

In the very humorous Interlude which is introduced by the clowns in Midsummer Night's Dream, we have the gentle voice of the dove contrasted with the mighty roar of the lion:-

"Bottom. Let me play the lion too: I will roar, that I will do any man's heart good to hear me; I will roar, that I will make the Duke say, 'Let him roar again, let him roar again.'

Quince. An you should do it too terribly, you would fright the Duchess and the ladies, that they would shriek; and that were enough to hang us all.

All. That would hang us, every mother's son.

Bottom. I grant you, friends, if that you should fright the ladies out of their wits, they would have no more discretion but to hang us; but I will aggravate my voice so, that I will roar you as gently as any sucking dove; I will roar you an't were any nightingale."-Midsummer Night's Dream, Act i. Sc. 2.

TIMIDITY OF THE DOVE.

We have before drawn attention to the fact that birds which are by nature weak and timid, flying at the approach of man, will nevertheless show fight in defence of their young. Shakespeare has noticed this in the case of the wren,112 and the dove:-

"And doves will peck in safeguard of their brood."

Henry VI. Part III. Act ii. Sc. 2.

And in the same play-

"So doves do peck the falcon's piercing talons."

Henry VI. Part III. Act i. Sc. 4.

Again-

"To be furious,

Is to be frighted out of fear; and in that mood

The dove will peck the ostrich."

Antony and Cleopatra, Act iii. Sc. 13.

And yet there can scarcely be a more timid bird than the dove, as Falstaff well knew, when he said ironically:-

"Thou wilt be as valiant as the wrathful dove, or most magnanimous mouse."-Henry IV. Part II. Act iii. Sc. 2.

A DISH OF DOVES.

The custom of bestowing a pair of doves as a present or peace-offering has been before alluded to (Titus Andronicus, Act iv. Sc. 4).

Izaak Walton tells us that "for the sacrifice of the Law a pair of turtle-doves or young pigeons were as well accepted as costly bulls and rams." When Gobbo wished to curry favour with Bassanio he began by saying:-

"I have here a dish of doves, that I would bestow on your worship."-Merchant of Venice, Act ii. Sc. 2.

These were no doubt intended to be eaten. Paris, speaking to Helen of Pandarus, says,-

"He eats nothing but doves, love."-Troilus and Cressida, Act iii. Sc. 1.

A weakness which he deprecates as being heating to the blood. Justice Shallow, when ordering dinner, showed his appreciation of pigeons as well as of other good cheer. He says:-

"Some pigeons, Davy; a couple of short-legged hens; a joint of mutton, and any pretty little tiny kickshaws, tell William cook."-Henry IV. Part II. Act v. Sc. 1.

The price of a pigeon at this time, as we learn from "The Northumberland Household Book," was "iij for a penny," while hens could be bought "at ijd. a pece."

"Item, it is thoughte goode to by Pidgions for my Lords Meas, Maister Chambreleyne, ande the Stewardes Meas, so they be boughte after iij for a penny.

"Item, it is thoughte goode Hennes be boughte from Cristynmas to Shroftide, so they be good and at ijd. a pece. Ande my Lorde Maister Chambreleyne and the Stewardes Meas to be syrved with theym and noon outher."

THE GOOSE.

A much more notable bird for the table is the Goose.

"Item, it is thoughte goode to by Geysse so that they be good and for iijd. or iiijd. at the moste seynge that iij or iiij Meas may be served thereof."

This bird is mentioned in As You Like It, Act iii. Sc. 4; Love's Labour's Lost, Act iii. Sc. 1, and Act iv. Sc. 3; Midsummer Night's Dream, Act v. Sc. 1; Tempest, Act ii. Sc. 2; Merry Wives of Windsor, Act v. Sc. 1; Romeo and Juliet, Act ii. Sc. 4; Coriolanus, Act i. Sc. 4; and Merchant of Venice, Act v. Sc. 1.

Shakespeare draws a distinction between a grass-fed and a stubble-fed goose:-

"The spring is near, when green geese are a-breeding."

Love's Labour's Lost, Act i. Sc. 1.

GREEN GEESE AND STUBBLE GEESE.

May is the time for a green or grass-fed goose, while the stubble-goose comes in at Michaelmas. King, in his "Art of Cookery," has-

"So stubble-geese at Michaelmas are seen

Upon the spit; next May produces green."

In the old "Household Books," it is not unusual to find such entries as the following:-

"Itm?, the xxvij daye to a s'v?t of maister Becks in rewarde for bringing a present of Grene Gees iiijs. viijd.

A "green goose" is mentioned again in Love's Labour's Lost, Act iv. Sc. 3.

Launce, enumerating the various occasions on which he had befriended his dog, says,-

"I have stood on the pillory for geese he hath killed, otherwise he had suffered for't."-Two Gentlemen of Verona, Act iv. Sc. 4.

"Goose, if I had you upon Sarum plain,

I'd drive you cackling home to Camelot."

King Lear, Act ii. Sc. 2.

There appears to be some difference of opinion as to what place is meant by the ancient name Camelot. Selden, in his notes to Drayton's "Polyolbion," says:-"By South Cadbury is that Camelot; a hill of a mile compass at the top; four trenches encircling it, and betwixt every of them an earthen wall; the contents of it within about twenty acres full of ruins and relics of old buildings."

In the "History of King Arthur" (Chap. 26), Camelot is located in the west of England, Somersetshire; while in Chapter 44, it is related that Sir Balen's sword "swam down the stream to the citie of Camelot, that is, in English, Winchester." When Caxton finished the printing of the "Mort d'Arthur,"113 he says of the hero:-"He is more spoken of beyond the sea, ... and yet of record remain witness of him in Wales, in the town of Camelot, the great stones and marvelous works," &c. Tennyson, in his "Mort d'Arthur," twice mentions Camelot, and in his "Lady of Shalott" frequently alludes to "many-tower'd Camelot," but in neither poem is any clue to its precise situation given.

THE WILD-GOOSE CHASE.

"Mercutio. Nay, if our wits run the wild-goose chase, I am done; for thou hast more of the wild-goose in one of thy wits, than, I am sure, I have in my whole five. Was I with you there for the goose?

Romeo. Thou wast never with me for anything, when thou wast not there for the goose.

Mer. I will bite thee by the ear for that jest.

Rom. Nay, good goose, bite not.

Mer. Thy wit is very bitter sweeting; it is a most sharp sauce.

Rom. And is it not well served in to a sweet goose?

Mer. O, here's a wit of cheverel, that stretches from an inch narrow to an ell broad!

Rom. I stretch it out for that word-broad: which, added to the goose, proves thee far and wide a broad goose."

Romeo and Juliet, Act ii. Sc. 4.

The "wild-goose chase" above alluded to was a reckless sort of horserace, in which two horses were started together, and the rider who first got the lead, compelled the other to follow him over whatever ground he chose.114

Burton, in his "Anatomy of Melancholy," 1660, gives us a general view of the sports most prevalent in the seventeenth century, and after naming the "common recreations of country folks," he alludes to "riding of great horses, running at rings, tilts and tournaments, and wild-goose chases, which are disports of greater men and good in themselves, though many gentlemen by such means gallop quite out of their fortunes."

Shakespeare has many observations relating to Ducks, but as his remarks illustrate more appropriately what we shall have to say under the head of "wild-fowl," we reserve them accordingly for a future chapter.

THE SWAN.

The Swan (Cygnus olor), being identified with Orpheus, and called also the bird of Apollo, the god of music, powers of song have been often attributed to it, and as often denied:-

"I will play the swan, and die in music."

Othello, Act v. Sc. 2.

"A swan-like end, fading in music."

Merchant of Venice, Act iii. Sc. 2.

Prince Henry, at his father's death-bed, exclaims,-

"'Tis strange that death should sing!

I am the cygnet to this pale, faint swan,

Who chants a doleful hymn to his own death;

And, from the organ-pipe of frailty, sings

His soul and body to their lasting rest."

King John, Act v. Sc. 7.

Again, in Lucrece, we read-

"And now this pale swan in her watery nest,

Begins the sad dirge of her certain ending."

But although the swan has no "song," properly so called, it has a soft and rather plaintive note, monotonous, but not disagreeable. I have often heard it in the spring, when swimming about with its young.

SONG OF THE SWAN.

Colonel Hawker, in his "Instructions to Young Sportsmen" (11th ed. p. 269), says:-"The only note which I ever heard the wild swan, in winter, utter, is his well-known 'whoop.' But one summer evening I was amused with watching and listening to a domesticated one, as he swam up and down the water in the Regent's Park. He turned up a sort of melody, made with two notes, C and the minor third, E flat, and kept working his head as if delighted with his own performance.

"The melody, taken down on the spot by a first-rate musician, Auguste Bertini, was as follows:-

[MIDI]

The Abbé Arnaud has written some interesting remarks upon the voice of the swan.115 He says:-

"The swan, with his wings expanded, his neck outstretched, and his head erect, places himself opposite his mate, uttering a cry to which the female replies by another half a note lower. The voice of the male rises from A (la), to B flat (si bemol); that of the female from G sharp (sol dièse), to A.116 The first note is short and transient, and has the effect which our musicians term sensible; so that it is not separated from the second, but seems to glide into it. Observe that, fortunately for the ear, they do not both sing at once; in fact, if, while the male sounded B flat, the female gave A, or if the male uttered A while the female gave G sharp, there would result the harshest and most insupportable of discords. We may add that this dialogue is subjected to a constant and regular rhythm, with the measure of two times (?). The keeper assured me that during their amours, these birds have a cry still sharper, but much more agreeable."

The late Charles Waterton once had an opportunity, which rarely occurs, of seeing a swan die from natural causes. "Although I gave no credence," he says,117 "to the extravagant notion which antiquity had entertained of melody from the mouth of the dying swan, still I felt anxious to hear some plaintive sound or other, some soft inflection of the voice, which might tend to justify that notion in a small degree. But I was disappointed. He nodded, and then tried to recover himself, and then nodded again, and again held up his head; till, at last, quite enfeebled and worn out, his head fell gently on the grass, his wings became expanded a trifle or so, and he died whilst I was looking on. He never even uttered his wonted cry, nor so much as a sound to indicate what he felt within.

"The silence which this bird maintained to the last tends to show that the dying song of the swan is nothing but a fable, the origin of which is lost in the shades of antiquity. Its repetition can be of no manner of use, save as a warning to ornithologists not to indulge in the extravagancies of romance-a propensity not altogether unknown in these our latter times."

HABITS OF THE SWAN.

Yarrell has remarked, in his "History of British Birds," that "the young, when hatched, which is generally about the end of May, are conducted to the water by the parent bird, and are even said to be carried there: it is certain that the cygnets are frequently carried on the back of the female when she is sailing about in the water. This I have witnessed on the Thames, and have seen the female, by raising her leg, assist the cygnets in getting upon her back." Mr. Jesse, also, in his "Gleanings in Natural History," correctly observes: "Where the stream is strong the old swan will sink herself sufficiently low to bring her back on a level with the water, when the cygnets will get upon it, and in this manner are conveyed to the other side of the river, or into stiller water."

From a passage in King Henry VI. we may presume that this habit had been noticed by Shakespeare:-

"So doth the swan her downy cygnets save,

Keeping them prisoner underneath her wings."

Henry VI. Part I. Act v. Sc. 3.

By the expression "underneath her wings" we may understand under shelter of her wings, which she arches over her back whereon the young are seated.

THE SWAN'S NEST.

This habit of carrying the young has been observed in the case of many other water birds. Mr. W. Proctor, of Durham, speaking of the habits of the horned grebe (Podiceps cornutus), as observed by him in Iceland, says:-"One day, having seen one of these birds dive from its nest, I placed myself with my gun at my shoulder, waiting its reappearance. As soon as it emerged I fired and killed it, and was surprised to see two young ones, which it seems had been concealed beneath the wings of the parent bird, drop upon the water. I afterwards shot several other birds of this species, all of which dived with their young under their wings. The young were placed with their heads towards the tail, and their bills resting on the back of the parent bird."

But to return to the swan:-

"For all the water in the ocean

Can never turn a swan's black legs to white,

Although she lave them hourly in the flood."

Titus Andronicus, Act iv. Sc. 2.

"I have seen a swan

With bootless labour swim against the tide,

And spend her strength with overmatching waves."

Henry VI. Part III. Act i. Sc. 4.

SWAN'S DOWN.

Those who are familiar with the late Mr. Wolley's sketch of the wild swan's nest, published by Professor Newton in the "Ootheca Wolleyana" (Part I. Plate 9), will recognize in it an excellent illustration to the following passage:-

"I' the world's volume

Our Britain seems as of it, but not in 't;

In a great pool, a swan's nest."

Cymbeline, Act iii. Sc. 4.

For the purpose of comparison, Shakespeare has found the swan very useful in metaphor.

Benvolio, referring to Rosaline, says,-

"Compare her face with some that I shall show,

And I will make thee think thy swan a crow."

Romeo and Juliet, Act i. Sc. 2.

Troilus, descanting on the charms of Cressida, speaks of-

"Her hand

········

····to whose soft seizure

The cygnet's down is harsh."...

Troilus and Cressida, Act i. Sc. 1.

Amongst the numerous classical allusions to be found throughout the Plays, we are reminded in the present chapter of Juno's chariot drawn by swans:-

"And wheresoe'er we went, like Juno's swans,

Still we went coupled and inseparable."

As You Like It, Act i. Sc. 3.

Falstaff, too, with some humour, thus alludes to the loves of Leda:-

"O powerful love! that, in some respects, makes a beast a man; in some other, a man a beast. You were also, Jupiter, a swan, for the love of Leda; O, omnipotent love! how near the god drew to the completion of a goose!"-Merry Wives of Windsor, Act v. Sc. 5.

The swan, in Shakespeare's day, was in much request for the table, and, for those who could afford it, was served up at all the principal feasts. In "The Northumberland Household Book," such items as the following constantly occur:-

"Item. It is thoughte goode that my Lordis Swannes be taken and fedde to serve my Lordis house and to be paide fore as they may be boughte in the countrey, seeing that my Lorde hath Swannes enoughe of his owne.

"Item a Warraunte to be servide oute yerely at Michaelmas for xx Swannes for th' expencez of my Lordis house as too say for Cristynmas Day v-Saynt Stephyns Day ij-Saynt John Day ij-Childremas Day ij-Saint Thomas Day ij-New Yere Day iij-ande for the xijth Day of Cristynmas iiij Swannys."

CYGNETS.

These were not to be old birds, however. The "Warraunt" referred to expressly provides that they should be "signetts."

In the case of the swan, as with many other species, were we to call attention to every passage throughout the works of Shakespeare wherein it is mentioned or referred to, we fear the reader's patience might become exhausted. Where such allusions, therefore, are trifling, we have thought it well to pass them by.

In the present chapter, enough has probably been said to show that while more attractive species have claimed a larger share of the poet's attention, the birds under domestication have been by no means neglected.