Chapter 9 WAGGONS AND OTHER WHEELED VEHICLES.

The wheeled carriages made use of in different parts of the world are even more various in their design and construction than the sledges before described; and, as a general rule, it will be found, when the test of actual use is brought to bear, that the description of contrivance (or at least a modification of it) in use among the civilised and semi-civilised inhabitants of a country or colony will be best adapted for such work as may have to be performed in it by the traveller or explorer.

It is, however, difficult to overcome home prejudices, and, as an almost invariable rule, the British emigrant, on his arrival at the Cape of Good Hope or Australia, commences by denouncing the colonial waggon as clumsy, unworkmanlike, and inefficient, and usually threatens to effect immense improvements, and just as invariably, if he has to make a journey of any distance into the interior, he adopts, if he be a sensible man, the vehicle which, by the experience of many, has been found the best for the work it has to do. On the well-made roads near Cape Town or Port Elizabeth, or on the broad plains of the Orange River Free State, imported carriages from England, or vehicles upon their model by colonial builders, may be used with safety and advantage; and even some of those wondrous combinations of strength and lightness imported from America, under the names of spider or skeleton carriages, are found to do good service; but when really hard work comes on, and densely wooded kloofs or rugged mountain passes, with rough stretches of road over hill-side or valley, with fords in which stones of several hundred weight seem to lose their gravitation and become the mere playthings of the torrent, the ponderous Cape waggon will be at once appreciated, as all its parts are so strongly put together that the strain of twelve or twenty oxen cannot draw them asunder, and yet fitted so loosely that they will give and bend to every inequality of the road. The Cape waggon is found to hold its position against all rivals as the vehicle best adapted to the wants of a travelling or exploring party, and the exigencies of the transport service and general carrying trade of the country.

We have already, at pp. 60 and 61, given an example of a Cape waggon with side tents; at pp. 129-132, we have shown how the tent frame or other material of a waggon might be converted into a boat; at pp. 140-144, we have indicated the manner in which the waggon chests might be made available as a raft; at pp. 215-219 will be found diagrams and instructions for repairing axles, fore tongs, dissel-booms, strengthening wheels when the spokes are shaken loose, tightening up the tires by driving wedges between them and the felloes, or making and putting in new spokes without taking the wheel to pieces; at pp. 195-197 are remarks on tiring of wheels and prolonging the efficiency of strained bolts by shifting them so as to freshen the nip; at pp. 297 and 298 waggon camps are described; and the method of building wheels is given at pp. 366-372.

CAPE WAGGON (WITH DIAGRAMS).

Cape waggon.

It is, therefore, now only necessary to give a general view of a full-sized "kap-tented" travelling waggon, with diagrams of such parts as have not hitherto come under notice. Such a waggon is represented in Fig. 1, and the buik plank, or floor (a), will sometimes be 17ft. or more in length, though in moderate-sized vehicles it does not exceed 13ft., or thereabouts. The sides are generally of yellow wood (?in. plank), b, secured to a substantial ladder-like frame, the longer pieces of which (c) are called "leer boomen," or ladder trees. The sides and bottom are not fastened together, nor are they fastened to the understell or carriage, but the bottom plank is simply laid upon the schammels (d) and secured from moving by cleats (e), which grip the after one. The fore and hinder axles are connected by a stout beam, called the "lang wagen" (f), working freely on a pivot passing through the aftermost jaws of the fore tong (g), and strengthened by a bar of iron (h), called the iron "lang wagen." The dissel-boom works like a carriage pole in the foremost jaws of the "fore tong." In this tong, also, immediately behind the axle, is a stout ring-bolt (i), to which are attached the drag chains, and they, with the reim schoen and the tar bucket, are looped up to hooks, fixed at the attachment of the after tongs (j) with the lang wagen. To the back of the after axle is suspended a kind of framework, called the "trap" (k), for the reception of pots, kettles, and general lumber. Into the ends of the schammels are set rungs, or stancheons (l), which confine and support the waggon sides. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the carriage, clear of the wheels and top hamper. All the parts are distinguished by the same letters. Fig. 3 shows how the buik plank (a) is laid upon the after schammel (d), and kept from shifting by the clamps (e); it will be seen that there is room enough between it and the rungs (l) for the sides (b), and these are kept apart at the after part by the after bar (m), as well as by the after chest (n), and in front by the fore chest only, leaving, in the present instance, a space available for stowage of rather more than 11ft. long, 3ft. wide, and 3ft. in height; though frequently the cargo is piled much higher. The kadel, or bed, an oblong frame (o, p. 216), with a netting of raw hide thongs, is then either slung above the cargo to the stancheons of the tent, or laid upon spars placed across the waggon, with their ends resting on the top rail or leer boom (c). The tent frame should be first covered with reed matting, similar to a cheese mat, and often obtainable from the Hottentots. Above this should be the under sail, which is very often painted to render it waterproof, though for durability we prefer to have it of stout unpainted No. 1 canvas, and above this is drawn on the upper sail. In the case of a kap-tent, this is sometimes in three or more pieces; first, the roof; then the sides, which are tacked on under a neat border at its edges; and, lastly, the fore and after klaps or curtains. Sometimes, however, the whole of these parts are made in one. The central breadths of canvas are left 5ft. or 6ft. longer at each end, so as to serve for the fore and after curtains, and the sides are stitched to the roof, so that the whole may be put on or taken off in one piece. The edges are then either buttoned to brass studs along the leer boom, or tied down with thongs of koodoo hide, stitched on for the purpose. A couple of bamboos or forked sticks are lashed to the foremost and aftermost stancheons of the tent frame, to serve as "nicks" in which to lay the waggon whip, which is a well-selected straight-grown "vaderlandsche" (male bamboo), from 10ft. to 15ft. in length, with a lash of about 20ft., as thick in the middle as the little finger, and with a "voorslag," or lash of koodoo hide, about 4ft. or 5ft. more. This, in the hands of a practised driver, is a most formidable weapon. Any particular ox in the long team of twelve or fourteen may be gently filliped in any part, or have the whip cracked next to his ear as a reminder, or if he show stubbornness or obstinacy, a cloud of hair may be cut from his sides from hip to shoulder, or each successive stroke of the long voorslag may be made to draw blood, until he goes to his duty.

The side chests are supported on stout bars (o), which cross beneath the bottom of the waggon, projecting 1ft. or 16in. beyond its sides, and these, besides being bolted to the bottom planks, are generally lashed tightly to the top rail by reims of raw hide (p), which serve to keep the bottom from bending too much with the weight of the cargo, and help still further to bind the waggon together. On open colonial roads, the side chests are generally rectangular, but we have seen them on the waggons of elephant hunters, brought to a sharp point forward, because, in passing through a thickly-wooded country, trees or stumps would knock off in passing the corners of a rectangular chest. We think, for economy of room, a long chest, tapered at both ends, as shown in our sketch, might be adopted; and if there were a probability of the waggon chests being required for a boat, as described at pp. 140-144, this might be made in two lengths, as we have shown it, so that the ends would serve for the respective ends of the boat or raft. They would be secured either by bolts and nuts, or by lashings of hide to the cross-bars and to the stancheons of the waggon sides. Padlocks and hasps are generally used, but a very stout branch may tear them off. Rim locks would be better, were it not that the same cause might disarrange the set of the lid, and prevent its fitting properly. A couple of stout knees and chocks should be screwed or bolted on to the after part of the floor for the water cask to rest in, and this should be securely lashed, and never allowed to stand or travel without at least a day's water in it, both to keep it from shrinking and leakage, and also as a prevention against any unexpected emergency or failure of supply.

Fig. 4 is a plan of as much as is necessary to show of the "under stell," or carriage. The same letters are attached to the parts. The junction of the two bars (j) of the after tong with the "lang wagen" is shown more distinctly. p is the head of the schammel bolt or perch bolt, which passes down through the schammel and axle, allowing the latter to turn freely. The top of the schammel is seen partly hiding the arms of the axle, underneath it; in its ends are the mortices for the rungs. q is the lifter, composed of two parts-the "legter voet," or upright, with two mortices, corresponding to the height of the fore and after axles-and the "legter hout," or lever, which is passed through the required mortice and forelocked by an iron pin. The shorter end is generally armed with one or more iron studs, to keep it from slipping; the longer end is tapered and rounded just so as to be easily grasped. Sometimes, when iron reim shoes are not to be had, or are worn out, a log of wood is roughly shaped and slightly hollowed (r) to receive the tire of the wheel, and, instead of chain, is attached to the fore tong by a stout hide rope. A short end is also left near the reim schoen, to hook round the felloe of the wheel.

For rough work, such as carrying stones or packages of unhandy form or dimensions, a "buik waggon" is very convenient. In this the regular lang wagen is released from the fore tong, and either replaced by a rough beam of any required length, or the beam is simply lashed under the original lang wagen, and its end is trimmed down so as to be inserted into the jaws of the fore tong; but as the bolt might probably split and draw out from the unprotected wood, the drag chains should be led aft from the ring-bolt, and hooked on as tightly as possible to the after axle, a turn or two being taken, if they are too long, round both the lang wagen and the pole by which it is lengthened. They may be set up tight by using reims of raw hide as lanyards.

The sides consist of a couple of stout planks set on edge-a couple of 21ft. deals for instance. Cross-bars are lashed under these at intervals, to keep the bottom from sagging.

Extemporary waggon.

A durable and convenient form of waggon can be extemporised in any wild country where wood and raw hides are procurable by proceeding as follows: First from dead, but sound, trees, or seasoned wood (see "Wood, to season"), fashion the pieces for your waggon bed frame, as shown in the illustration below. Both the fore and hind axle trees are composed of two pieces of wood matched so as to lay evenly on each other. On the surface of contact of each piece-half holes are cut for the admission of the pole (A), prong piece (B), and cross prong ends (C). The perch bolt (D) should be an iron pin, but may be a hard wood treenail. Either lashings of raw hide or treenails may be used for securing the upper and lower axle pieces to each other. The lower piece of wood, or axle bar, should be composed of some hard dense, yet tough, wood, as the axles have to be formed from it. The butt end of the prong piece (E) is so adjusted as to travel forward and backward on the pole, thus lengthening or shortening the body of the waggon. There are two methods by which the regulation of the prong piece is effected. One is to have a train of holes in the pole and one hole in the butt end of the prong piece for a pin to pass through, which being driven down through one of the holes in the pole holds it at that length. We, however, prefer hollowing out the lower surface of the prong-piece butt with a gouge until it fits on the pole after the manner of a hollow slide or rider. This we lash fast to the pole with a long strip of raw hide, taking several turns both before and behind the joint. The prong piece must be cut from a natural fork of suitable size and length. The butt end should be left at least 18in. long, in order that sufficient bearing surface may be left to rest on the pole under the hide lashing. By adopting this mode of regulating the movements of the prong, a pole of moderate and convenient size may be used without fear of breakage. A very stout pole is required for the pin plan, as the auger holes bored through it tend greatly to decrease its strength. The four upright posts (F, F, F, F) are fitted into four square holes chiselled out in the upper axle piece for the purpose of receiving them; and they serve to secure the planks, hurdles, wattle work, or poles forming the sides of the waggon.

Directions for building and fitting wheels have been given in a former portion of our work; and we need therefore only repeat that slices cut from suitable-sized log ends form very fair makeshift wheels (see p. 366); but care should be taken, if native carts are used in the region where the makeshift waggon is building, to ascertain the gauge at which their wheels are set and regulate yours accordingly, or the wheel tracks on these trails will not match with yours, and so cause strains and breakages. The adjustment of the contrivance just described will entirely depend on the purpose for which it is from time to time required. For the conveyance of the packs and baggage of a large party it may be drawn out to its full length, as shown in the illustration (p. 440), leaving only pole enough for the attachment of draught animals. By bringing the prong piece farther back a short four-wheeled waggon can be formed, and by slipping the fore axle and prong over the end of the pole you leave the perch and hinder axle to be used as a two-wheeled cart, whilst an extra pole fitted to the first axle and prong makes a second pair-wheeled cart just as handy as the other. Should there be but two available draught animals for the two carts, shafts can be used instead of poles. These are easily made by lashing on poles with raw hide, or cutting wide prong-shaped branches which spread out wide at the butt, which must be left long enough to fit into the pole hole of the axle piece, when, if cut with a good curve, these shafts will somewhat resemble those of a Hansom cab. Acting somewhat on this principle, the Californian teamsters make use at times of a sort of train waggon, which, with a powerful mule team, is, over favourable ground, worked entire; but when the vicissitudes of travel require it, they work each separate compartment of the waggon just as we should an ordinary cart.

Cape wine waggon.

About the year 1842, we were accustomed to see the primitive wine waggon of the Cape Colony toiling over the dreary waste of shifting sands known as the Cape Flats. Its wheels were large and broad, the hinder ones being often 7ft. in diameter. The fore and after carriages were connected by a long fir pole, and the sides and bottom were formed of six or eight trees of the same kind, so arranged as to form a convenient bed for two or three beakers of wine. At the hinder end would be a tent and sides of wattled work, or perhaps the sides of an ordinary waggon, with the tent attached, would be fitted temporarily on, so as to form a place of shelter for the owner and his family. It was generally drawn by twenty or twenty-two oxen.

The illustration on p. 440 represents one of these wine waggons; and, as it may so happen that the lot of the settler may be cast in regions resembling the district we have just spoken of, it may be well that he should know how to construct a conveyance of this kind, as the fore part of the waggon affords ample space for stowing away barrels or bales. As will be seen, on reference to the illustration, the length of the waggon can, like that before described, be regulated according to the requirements of the owner.

Indian gharrie.

The illustration below represents a vehicle in which we performed some very rough travelling through Central India. Its cover, or tent, was composed of painted cotton cloth stretched over bamboo hoops and nailed to the framework. On the bottom, or bed, of our conveyance we placed a stout matress stuffed with cotton. Our rifles, guns, water barrel, and revolvers hung in pouches against the inside of the waggon tent. The door was at the rear. The windows had curtains fitted to them. The bullock teams varied in strength from one pair to three, according to the character of the country travelled through. Conveyances much like this in construction, and of admirable quality, are manufactured at Ahmednugger, in the Bombay Presidency. When travelling in this vehicle our heavy baggage followed in two hackeries, or country carts, each drawn by two pairs of bullocks. These hackeries, like the arobas of the Tartars, merely consist of an axle, a pair of rough strong wheels, a pole, and number of odd poles, sticks, and pieces of board bound together with hide. Our men were much puzzled in Crim-Tartary when we overtook, on the only road leading from passes perfectly impracticable for wheeled carriages, several of the bullock arobas of the country laden with bales of skins and bags of grain. The Tartars had simply taken their arobas to pieces by casting off the hide lashings, packed the bullocks, themselves, and their wolfish-looking dogs, with the divided loads and waggon gear, marched over the passes, and then put the whole affair in travelling trim again. With our horses and packed mules we had no such difficulty to contend against. Much like these in construction is the single-ox cart of Red River. In this the ox is harnessed very much as a horse would be, working between a pair of ordinary shafts. Each driver conducts his own train, which may consist of a dozen carts. The oxen are driven with a long-handled, heavy-thonged whip, which is a sort of compromise between the whip of a Cape waggoner and that of an Australian stock-man. Each of these primitive carts is capable of transporting about 9cwt. of buffalo flesh and hides from the hunting grounds to the dep?t of the hunters.

Horse and mule waggons.

Horse and mule waggons and carts vary so much in construction according to the nature of the country they are used in, and to the purpose for which they are intended, that it would be impossible to describe one-tenth of their number. The mode of harnessing, too, differs in almost every country. Whilst we, in England, usually content ourselves with a team harnessed in pairs, the Russians not unfrequently work three and four a-breast. The Spanish and Portuguese race, in their devious wanderings about the world, have taken the enormously high wheel of the Peninsula with them, and delight to see a big-booted postilion, black or white, acting as pilot to the lumbering old-world conveyance they journey in. Scarcely any two artillery services in the world correspond in their draught arrangement-some making use of the pole, whilst others, England amongst the number, use the shafts. Our province being to deal more particularly with vehicles calculated to bear the rough usage and vicissitudes of travel, we naturally turn to vastly extensive countries-where long journeys over hill, plain, and valley are commonly performed-for the best form of waggon to do it with. Experience in these matters is always the best guide. The constant demand almost invariably brings about the required supply. We have no long waggon journeys in England; and, as neither the artillery or military train waggon of this country, nor the "equipage militaire" of France, is in accordance with our notions of what travellers' mule waggons should be, we go a little farther a-field, and select the Wilson waggon of the United States of America, the subject of the full-page illustration. The American mode of harnessing is also shown. All these waggons have wheel friction breaks fitted to them, as had all the Sardinian waggons used during the Crimean war.

THE WILSON MULE WAGGON (UNITED STATES OF AMERICA).

Wheel drags.

In travelling over rough passes and steep acclivities great attention should be paid to the application of proper break power to the wheels. The use of the skid and common drag-chain are too well known to need comment here, only that it may not be amiss to remark, en passant, that, conducting your waggon down the edge of a steep hollow, or ravine, you must have your shoe placed on the wheel away from the drop side. Never use your drag-chain when you can safely do without it, as, by confining the wheel in one position during the descent of steep pitches, the portion of the tire in contact with the ground will be seriously ground and cut up. All comparatively light carts and waggons should have the lever friction breaks before mentioned attached to them. These contrivances are simple in construction, powerful in action, and, by allowing a certain amount of retarded action to the wheel, many advantages are gained. The detail of the break arrangement varies greatly in the different countries in which it is used; but the illustration on p. 443 will serve to show the principle on which it is constructed. The roller (A) has two stout pieces of hide rope wound round it. These are attached to the break-bar (B), which slides forward and back under the staples (C). By depressing the end of the lever (D) and hooking down its end, the friction blocks (E) are drawn against the surfaces of the wheel tires and retained there with just as much force as is thought requisite. The movements of a waggon train furnished with these contrivances are not retarded and rendered irregular by the constant and harassing stoppages consequent on the leading waggoners skidding and unskidding. On the crest of a steep descent being reached, all the teamster has to do is to heave down his lever to the required pitch, and hook on without stopping his team. On getting near the bottom he unhooks, and is prepared to move smartly up on the rise before him, all the other waggons following his example. In this way there is no check. In going down dangerously-steep inclines it is a good plan to attach a short bushy tree of good weight, root end forwards, by a strong rope or chain to the hind axle.

Makeshift break.

A very effective makeshift break can be made by cutting a tough, stout pole, long enough to extend some distance beyond the diameter of the wheel to be dragged. Lash the ends of the pole to the framework of the waggon, so as to nip the wheel, as shown in the accompanying illustration. Almost any amount of nipping power may be gained by tightening the lashings. A large exploring party, or troops on the march, can also, when requisite, make use of drag ropes, by which to ease a load down a difficult place. When it is desirable to completely lock a pair of wheels, cut down a young tree of suitable size, trim off the branches, and cut it to a length sufficient to pass directly across the bottom of the waggon, through the spokes of each of the wheels to be locked, and extend a couple of feet or so beyond the nave of each wheel a few turns of rope round both the tree and the felloe of the wheel prevents the arrangement from slipping. This is a very good plan to adopt when a waggon has to be stopped for any time in the middle of a very steep incline. The two wheels on one side of a short-bodied carriage may be locked by applying a rope or chain, as shown in the annexed illustration. By treating both sides alike all four wheels would be locked, as when waggons are drawn up to resist attacking Indians, only that chain must be used in order to prevent the locking from being cut free, and the waggon being started out of its place.

Substitute for wheels.

If one wheel of a four-wheeled carriage gets broken on a journey, or when some distance out of camp, and there is no spare wheel to replace it, make the two fore wheels good, leaving the deficiency with the hind axle; then cut down a tree about 8in. or 9in. in diameter, cut a deep notch in its large end, lay this on the axle directly inside the fore wheel on the side towards the absent hind wheel; measure the length of the tree, and see that it is long enough to trail on the ground sledge, runner fashion, behind the carriage, round up the ground end, like the toe of a skate, with your axe; cut another notch on its upper surface for the end of the axle from which the broken wheel came to rest in. Now lash both the front and hind axles in their places firmly, as shown in the annexed illustration, and you will be at least able to get to a convenient place to effect a perfect repair; and here we would advise the reader never to despair of making a successful mend in almost any case of breakages among wheeled carriages, provided wood, a few tools, and raw hide can be obtained. A raw hide band, properly fitted on wet, and allowed to dry gradually, is little less reliable than good wrought iron, and far more so than bad.

Waggon equipment.

Every wheeled carriage used in exploring or travelling long journeys should have its own grease box secured in a convenient situation; just above and before the near fore wheel is a good place. The form of the common Indian bamboo grease box is shown at p. 359, illustration No. 3. A good-sized ox-horn makes a convenient grease box. A mixture of Stockholm tar, 6lb., and fat, 1lb., makes a good grease. If a little common plumbago can be got to put into it, so much the better. In countries where native vegetable oils are abundant, they may be used, instead of the fat, to mix with the tar. Bear in mind that keeping the wheels well greased is a duty of no common importance. In hot countries it is an excellent plan to work the naves of the wheels over with strong twine, just as boys work balls in some parts of England. The twine-work affords a holdfast for a thick layer of wet cowdung, or clay, which should be renewed whenever the waggons are stationary for the day or night. We never omit this custom when it can be by any possibility adhered to. By keeping the nave moist the spokes of the wheel remain tight. It is a good plan to well water the ground under each wheel when encamping on very dry ground. The treatment of injured wheels will be found at pp. 219, 220. When any of the ironwork of your waggon becomes bent from an upset, or other accident, never attempt to straighten it cold. Light a fire, heat it to a red heat, hammer it back to its proper form, and then let it cool gradually before putting it in its place. Plunging it suddenly in cold water is apt to render the metal brittle. In the purchase of all iron fittings for either waggon work or horse equipment, about which we shall have more to say as our work proceeds, insist on seeing it, without paint or varnish, bare from the forge, as you can then see that there are no hollows, cracks, or defects in it. It is wonderful what a number of shortcomings a good thick coat of coal-tar will cover when laid on over the hot metal. Avoid malleable cast iron as you would a broken limb. It cannot be bent without the danger of nipping off short. When broken, it cannot be welded or faggoted up. It is not reliable in any way, and is a mere delusion and snare to the unwary; and yet, incredible as it may appear, not only the greater portion of the cheap horse equipment iron sent to the colonies is made from it, but we have ourselves seen more than one attempt made by unscrupulous contractors to introduce it in Government work, where wrought metal had been specially insisted on and agreed for. An experienced man will generally detect the nature of the material at once, but the inexperienced requires some rough and ready way of judging of the quality of that which he is about to purchase. Buckles, D's, rings, hooks, &c., will not unfrequently show the mark of the mould in which they were cast. If there is no such mark, take one of the suspected objects in the tongs, put it on an anvil, and with a light hammer knock it about a little to see if it breaks up; as a further test put it in the forge fire, heat it to a bright red heat, cut and open out the object to its full length, and then proceed, with your hammer, to draw out the end, as if you were going to make a long sharp nail from it. If the suspected metal is wrought iron it readily takes the spike form, but if malleable it will give under the hammer and break up. Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of all matters of iron intended to meet the vicissitudes of rough travel. The iron of Sweden, Russia, and India is excellent when it is obtained of native manufacture. Its admirable purity and toughness partly depend on the quality of the ore from which it is obtained, but mainly from the absence of sulphur in its composition. This arises from charcoal being used as a fuel for smelting instead of the coal made use of in this country, which, from its containing considerable quantities of sulphuret of iron (the mundic of the miners), is but ill-adapted for the production of iron of high quality. Thoroughly good iron is convertible and reconvertible into an endless number of objects of usefulness. Thus, the links of an old chain make excellent staples; these, when broken, can be worked up into nails, and pieces of these, when filed up, are used to make goad points and many other things. Every waggon should have its "odd and end" box for small matters in iron, such as linch pins, S hooks, D's, spikes, union links, &c., &c. All these are worth their weight in gold in a wild country, and must, therefore, be kept carefully out of the reach of natives.

Field artillery.

The settler in the vicinity of a frontier beyond which native tribes, who may become hostile at any time, reside will not unfrequently find it useful to know how field artillery and the waggons belonging to it are handled in cases of breakage. Well-organised labour will perform more in a few minutes than would double the amount of force in hours expended in ill-directed efforts. Works exclusively on artillery matters rarely reach the hands of any save officers in that branch of the service. We, therefore, give the following directions for the management of disabled field artillery, furnished by General Lefroy, R.A., F.R.S., in his handbook of "Field Artillery Service."

Case I.-Gun without a Waggon-Carriage disabled.

(1.) Dismount the gun.

(2.) Nos. 2 and 3 put a handspike in the muzzle, and raise it. Nos. 4 and 5 take a prolonge or drag rope, pass it in the rear of one trunnion and in front of the other, and sling the gun securely to the limber hook; then pass the long end of the rope between the boxes to the front. Nos. 6 and 7 steady the wheels. Nos. 8 and 9 raise and hold up the shafts whilst 4 and 5 sling the gun. As soon as the gun is slung, 8 and 9 haul down the shafts, and hold them about the same height they would be if a horse was hooked in them. Nos. 6 and 7 then take the long end of the rope left by 4 and 5, and bring it down at the end of the box frame, close to the boxes under the breech of the gun about the vent astragal, or between the frame and footboard, according to the length of the gun, so that the rope will have no tendency to slip off the carriage. When 6 has done this and handed the end of the rope to the other side to 7, and put the first part of a reef knot on it, 1 gives the word "Bear down the muzzle," when 2 and 3 bear down. Nos. 6 and 7 take a turn round the breech, bring the end of the rope up at the end of the box frame, and secure it. Nos. 8 and 9 now let down the shafts and leave them.

(3.) The trail is now thrown round, and the carriage is dismounted and turned over.

(4.) To lift the carriage.-Nos. 8 and 9 place themselves at the breast, 6 and 7 at the axletree arms, 4 and 5 at the cheeks of the carriage, close to the axletree, 2 and 3 at the trail, 1 in the shafts. At the word "Lift," the numbers all lift, and carry the carriage to the rear of the limber, and rest the breast on the rear of the boxes, as far on as the front cap square bolts. Nos. 8 and 9 then mount on the footboard, and, taking hold of the breast chains, the whole of the numbers lift again, and, moving forward, continue to lift until the elevating screw box rests on the rear of the limber boxes.

(5.) No. 1, who has been in the shafts during the operation, gives the proper directions for balancing the carriage.

(6.) Placing the wheels.-Nos. 4 and 5 put on the washers and linch-pins; the numbers on each side will put on the wheels "dish down;" and the four lowest numbers will lash in rear, and the four highest numbers in front. Nos. 2 and 3 will then secure the trail to the handspike in the muzzle by the locking chain.

(7.) Lashing the carriage.-Nos. 4 and 5 use the box lashings, 6 and 7 the drag rope and breast chains. The side-arms are laid on the top of the boxes close to or between the box guard irons and the carriage.

Case II.-A Gun with a Waggon-Carriage disabled.

(1.) The gun and carriage are dismounted, and the gun is slung as in the first case.

(2.) The waggon and gun carriage are so placed that the rear of the waggon will be close to and in front of the carriage; or, in other words, the gun carriage will be brought to the rear of the waggon, and placed with the trail to the waggon before it is dismounted.

(3.) The carriage is then turned upside down, as in the first case.

(4.) At the word "Prepare to lift," 2 and 3 place themselves at the breast, 4 and 5 at the axletree arms, 6 and 7 at the cheeks, and 8 and 9 at the trail. At the word "Lift," the carriage is lifted, and the trail rested on the footboard. Nos. 8 and 9 then jump up and seize the trail handles, and at the next heave bring the trail on the rear box. Then, lifting and moving forward, they bring the trail eye near to the limber boxes, but not to touch them. In this position the cap square bolts will injure the lids of the boxes, but by placing a piece of wood about 3in. or 4in. thick on the boxes it will raise the carriage clear.

(5.) To unlash the waggon boxes and place the wheels.-Nos. 2, 4, 3, and 5 unlash the rear boxes; 6, 8, 7, and 9 the front boxes. Then the two extreme numbers and the two centre ones will each take one of the box lashings (or 2, 9, 5, and 6) and lay them conveniently to where they are needed.

(6.) Placing the wheels.-The four numbers on each side then lift the gun wheels, "dish inwards," inside the rear wheels of the waggon, and rest them on the axletrees. Nos. 2 and 3 lash the wheels together at the rear. Nos. 4, 6, 5, and 7 lash to the box handles. Nos. 8 and 9 lash together in front, and then fix the trail to the perch.

(7.) The spare side-arms to be put in their proper places on the gun carriage, and the others alongside the gun.

Case III.-A Gun Axletree Arm broken.

(1.) The gun is slung under the limber, as in Cases I. and II., and the carriage is limbered up. Here it may be remarked that a piece of chain would answer best for slinging the gun, because a rope sling takes up so much room that the trail eye is sometimes prevented from being keyed; besides a rope may get chafed.

(2.) To take off the disabled gun.-No. 2 takes a handspike and passes it under the axletree close to the wheel. It is manned at the other end by 8.

(3.) Nos. 4 and 6 stand ready to take off the wheel; 3, 5, 7, and 9 take hold of the highest part of the opposite wheel, and place their feet against the lowest part, to ease 2 and 8. At the word "Take off the wheel," 2 and 8 lift; the numbers on the opposite side pull over; 4 and 6 take the wheel off the axletree, but hold it in such a position that the axletree will pass between the spokes, where it is to rest, and they remain to keep the wheel steady.

(4.) Nos. 2 and 8 then take a stout spar, about 12ft. or 14ft. long, and pass it under the axletree and secure it to a piece of wood in the trunnion holes and to the cheeks of the carriage.

(5.) The numbers on the opposite side place the wheel, "dish side up," on the limber boxes; and all the numbers assist to secure it-2, 3, 4, and 5 in rear, 6, 7, 8, and 9 in front.

Case IV.-A Gun and Waggon-The Gun Limber disabled.

(1.) This case can only occur when a gun and its waggon are by themselves; for if two or more guns and waggons are acting together, a waggon limber would be taken for the gun, and then the case would be as No. 6.

(2.) Unlimber and run the gun in rear of waggon.-At this word 2 and 3 bear down the muzzle; 4 and 5 man the wheels; 6, 7, 8, and 9 man the trail; and the gun is run in rear of the waggon, with the trail eye under the rear axletree. Nos. 8 and 9 pass the locking chain through the trail eye. If it will not pass through, it must be brought up at the side; but it is better through the eye or handspike ring.

(3.) Limber up.-Nos. 2 and 3 bear down the muzzle; 4 and 5 man the wheels; 6 and 7 raise the trail. One of the next numbers passes the lock chain of the gun over the axletree of the waggon, from rear to front, across to 8, who will pass it over the axletree from front to rear, and, assisted by 9, will take a turn under the neck of the trail plate and round the returns. It is then secured by its own hook.

(4.) To remove and place the limber boxes.-The limber will be lashed to the side of the waggon body by the numbers on that side on which the limber stands. No. 1 in the shafts; 2 and 4 unlash; 6 and 8 untie the boxes, and slip them a little to the rear. The limber will then be lashed close to the waggon wheel in the centre of the limber, in line with the axletree of the waggon. No. 1 then lets down the shaft-prop. Nos. 2 and 4 mount on the waggon, and 6 and 8 on the footboard of the limber. Nos. 2 and 6 lift one box on the top of the waggon wheel, whence they will be assisted by 3 and 5 to place it on the rear box of the waggon body. Nos. 4 and 8 will then lift on the other box, and, assisted by 7 and 9, place it on the front box of the waggon body, the locks front and rear.

(5.) Dismount the limber.-The limber is now moved forward a little. Nos. 6 and 7 hold up the splinter bar. Nos. 8 and 9 take out the shafts, and lay them down; then relieve 6 and 7 at the splinter bar, who will take hold of the front part of the wheels, and 4 and 5 the rear part, 6 and 7 attending to the linchpins and washers. Nos. 2 and 3 take hold of the rear of the limber, and at the word "Take off the wheels," 2, 8, 3 and 9 lift, and 4, 6, 5 and 7 take the wheels off. Then the whole is laid on the ground.

(6 and 7.) The waggon boxes are unlashed and the wheels placed, as in Case II.

(8.) The limber body is now turned upside down and placed on the top of the boxes of the waggon limber, axletree to the rear by the whole of the numbers, and secured behind by both of the limber box lashings, and in front of the splinter bar and pitchells by the prolonges or fitting ropes. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 lashing behind, and 6, 7, 8, and 9 in front. The small box of spare linchpins and washers to be laid on the disabled limber by 8.

(9.) The shafts are then placed, one on each side, between the disabled limber boxes and the guard irons of the waggon body, point to the rear, and secured by the pocket straps.

Case V.-Waggon Limber disabled.

This case is so similar to Case IV. that the details would only be a repetition, except when the word "trail" is used in Case IV. use the word "perch" in this. The waggon body being secured the same as the gun.

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Yoking or harnessing draught oxen.

In South Africa, the oxen draw from the neck, or, rather, the yoke is laid upon the neck, and is prevented from slipping backward by the hump, which, when the ox presses forward, is pushed strongly against it. The form of the yoke and its furniture is shown on p. 217. The yoke is about 6ft. in length, and 3in. thick. In its centre is a strong staple, through which are passed several turns of reim or hide thong, to lace it to a corresponding ring on the "dissel-boom" (K), or on the "trek touw" (8). Near each end are two mortices, 3in. long, ?in. wide, and about 1ft. apart, through which to pass the "jeuk skeis," or yoke keys, which keep it in place on the neck of the ox. The ends should be rounded so as not to chafe the animal. A knobbed head, more or less ornamented, keeps them from slipping through the mortices, and on the outside edge of each key are cut two notches, to receive the throat strap, which is simply a double thong of softened hide, so twisted as to leave a loop at each end. This is hitched to the upper or lower notches to tighten or loosen it, and it may be more nicely adjusted by twisting or untwisting it till it attains the required length. The strap will readily be recognised on p. 217.

When the oxen are to be "inspanned," the span or team is driven to the waggon, and the nooses of the reims or raw hide halters are thrown over the horns and tightened on the forehead. The oxen are then arranged in pairs, and held by one or more assistants, as seen near waggon No. 9, on p. 298. The driver then leads out the fore oxen, lifts the yoke over the neck of the farthest, hitches the throat strap into the nicks, and then, holding up the yoke with one hand, with the other he draws forward the other ox, and induces him to walk to his proper place under the yoke. The "voor looper," or boy that leads them, then holds the reims of the fore oxen so as to keep the "trek touw" tolerably tight, while the other oxen are yoked, as seen before waggon No. 2, on p.298 In outspanning the order is reversed, the fore oxen being left to keep the trek rope tight till the very last. An ox requires fully 8ft. to pull in; therefore, a trek touw for twelve oxen must be fully 40ft. long, as the two after oxen will be yoked to the dissel-boom, and require no rope. Our accompanying sketch of Cape oxen in their yokes will sufficiently show the arrangements. A Cape waggon is supposed to be loaded with about 2000lb. of cargo, but 3000lb. is not uncommon, and we have seen a waggon with 4000lb. start as lightly as could be wished, though when it came on bad roads it was too heavy for the oxen. The trek touw is usually of hide rope, but hunters sometimes use chain and sometimes hempen rope, either of which defy the teeth of jackals and hy?nas. Chain may, perhaps, gall the sides of the oxen, but we have seen it used on long journeys without bad effect. Hemp is apt to rot, from exposure to alternate wet and excessive dryness, but we have seen it do good service. With a hempen rope, get a sailor to splice in all the rings before you leave the coast. A Hottentot will do well with a hide rope, but not with one composed of hemp.

CAPE OX TEAM.

In Australia, two-wheeled drays, somewhat like the Scotch cart, are used. They will sometimes carry 3000lb. of wool over bad roads. They are very handy, but strain the necks of the pole oxen rather. Sometimes, only two oxen are used, as in our sketch-sometimes, six or more. The yoke lies upon the neck, like the African, but is fastened by iron bows passed up through the yoke and keyed above it, so that, when once an ox is yoked, nothing on earth can free him till the bow is removed. The long bamboo whip of Africa is unknown in Australia. The handle is short, the lash long and heavy, and is often terminated by a bit of silk, to produce a more effective crack.

In many parts of Spain, the yoke is simply laid across the foreheads of the two oxen, and lashed fast to the base of their horns. This is not only a source of great discomfort to the animals, but is an absolute waste of their muscular power; for, strong as the neck of an ox undoubtedly is, that part of the spinal column which forms it cannot with impunity bear the continued heavy strain or the occasional concussions which might without injury be received upon the shoulder.

THE SWING OX GOAD.

In some parts of the world the yoke is laid across the back of the head, and is lashed fast to the roots of the horns. This plan is followed by some of the Hispano-Americans, who make use of an enormously long goad, hung in a sling, to drive the cattle with. In addition to the point of the weapon a sharp "dropper," or bob, is hung on in such a way that, by lowering the shaft of the goad, it may fall end downwards on the bullocks, working too close to be attacked by the point. The preceding illustration will serve to show the nature of this contrivance and the mode of fastening on the yoke.

GERMAN OX HARNESS.

Some of the Germans adopt a much better plan. They take a broad band of stout leather, so stuffed and padded as to form a cushion, and fit this upon the hump of the ox, as shown in our sketch. In each end of this are stout rings, to which the traces are attached, and there is a slight collar and a belly band to keep it from slipping in its place, but the whole strain comes upon the part best able to support it, i.e., the shoulder hump; and this simple gear has the advantage of being applicable to one or any number, while the yokes can only be used for pairs of oxen. Remember that the prudent as well as the merciful man is merciful to his beast; and if you want an animal to work for you, take especial care that he is not galled nor incommoded by superfluous or ill-fitting gear, nor fretted and irritated by unnecessary chastisement, inflicted in such a manner that he cannot understand it. If it is necessary to flog him, take care to do it in such a manner that he can escape the punishment only by going to his work, and discontinue it as soon as he really does so.

Little good could result from our describing the various modes by which bullocks are harnessed in different parts of the world, as the explorer will, in great measure, have to be guided in the selection of the way in which he intends to work his teams by the description of animal with which he is about to deal. Humped cattle draw efficiently by either the German plan, before described, or the yoke and pin plan shown in the annexed illustration (A), because a much larger amount of pressure comes on the anterior point of the hump, or bearing point of the yoke piece, than in any other direction, the pin merely keeping the neck of the bullock in the proper position, and regulating the line of draught; whilst humpless cattle require, in lieu of a collar, either a neck bow, as shown at B, or some other mode of adjustment, by which neck and shoulder power can be brought to bear. The Indian, African, and Eastern cattle work according to the former rule, whilst the English and Australian draw by the latter. The Australian ox bow, as we have before stated, is usually composed of iron, bent into the required form; whilst that in general use throughout the western counties of England is made from a pole of tough wood, commonly elm, moulded to the requisite shape by the aid of heat. The yoke should be made from some tough light timber, and the neck bows of some wood not liable to splinter.

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