Chapter 7 SLEDGES AND SLEDGE TRAVELLING.

The use of the sledge in some of its various forms is general throughout the greater portion of the known world. The northern regions may, however, be fairly considered the great field for the performance of sledging operations.

Men, animals of various kinds, and the wind are all at times made available as means of applying either traction power or propulsion to the sledge; and as the build and rig of ships and boats are found to vary according to the seas they are sailed over, and the requirements of those who sail in them, so will sledges differ in form, size, capacity, weight, and the material from which they are constructed according to the nature of the climate and country they are used in. The far north, and in regions where long and rigid winters lock the earth, the rivers, lakes, and even at times the sea itself, in ice, and covers the whole with a thick mantle of snow, such travelling would be next to impossible, without the aid of the sledge, which, although apparently simple in design, requires much care and judgment to construct successfully.

Dimensions of sledges.

Dr. Kane, the Arctic explorer, thus writes on this subject:-

"The dimensions and structure of the sledge are of vital importance, almost imperceptible differences cause an increase of friction equal to the draught of another man or dog. The curvature of the runners must be determined experimentally. The 'Faith' was even preferable to the excellent model of Captain McClintock; the dimensions of both are as under:

McClintock's. Ft. In. 'The Faith.' Ft. In.

Length of runners 13 0 Length of runners 13 0

Height of ditto 0 11? Height of ditto 0 8

Horizontal width of all parts 0 2? Horizontal width of rail 0 2?

Base of runners 0 3?

Other parts 0 2

Thickness of all parts 0 1? Thickness of all parts 0 1?

Length resting on a plane surface 5 0 Length resting on a plane surface 6 0

Cross-bars, six in number, making a width of 3 0 Cross-bars, five in number, making a width of 6 8

"The shoeing of large English sledges was burnished ?in. iron, ours were annealed 3?16in. steel, as light as possible to admit slightly countersunk rivets. Sealskin lashings, applied wet, were used for the cross-bars, the wood was hickory and oak, not the Canada elm used by the Lancaster Sound parties. A sledge like this, with a canvas cover on which to place and confine the cargo, would load from 150lb. to 200lb. per man. The 'Faith' has carried 1600lb."

Sledges, to draw.

When manual labour is brought to bear on the sledge it is usually applied through the medium of traction, propulsion, or the two combined. The men who propel a sledge simply push behind, whilst those who draw do so by the aid of track ropes and shoulder bands, which latter contrivances are called "rue ruddies," and are used as shown in the illustration.

The track lines are best made from twisted horsehair, but in the absence of that material Manilla rope is the next best. Each man of the tracking party should be provided with his own track line and rue ruddy, for which he should be held responsible. The sledge to be drawn is fitted at its front end with a species of bridle loop, to which all the lines are attached by rings, in such a way that as the sway or motion of the sledge inclines to either side, the rings travel forward or back on the bridle.

It is well, however, to attach one line on each side without a ring to the sledge runner outside the attachment of the bridle, in order that when the sledge has to be turned, or its line of direction suddenly changed, the power of one man on each side may be brought directly to bear. The sliding lines must be so adjusted with regard to length that the whole party of trackers may use their full powers without coming in contact with each other. The longest lines may be from 16ft. to 20ft. from ring to end.

The rue ruddy.

The rue ruddy is a broad band of double canvas or skin with the edges sewn in, and the bearing joints padded and stuffed with hair. A loop is formed at the point at which the track rope is attached, through this the toggle of the line is passed. When an extra man is attached to a line, a spare toggle is attached to it by a timber hitch, as shown in the illustration here given. A short mast and small square sail can be used with great advantage when the wind is fair. Kites would also facilitate the passage of sledges over comparatively smooth ice.

Dog sledge and harness.

The dog sledge is a most valuable and important accessory to northern travel, and without its assistance the Esquimaux hunter and Arctic explorer would be at times almost helpless. The form of the dog sledge, and the manner of harnessing the dogs, varies according to the customs of the countries in which it is used and the period of the year when its aid is required. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to a description of such as are most likely to be of value to the European traveller, leaving him to select the form of harness best suited to his particular tastes. Dog harness is usually made from strips of sealskin sewn together with threads formed from sinew. Some drivers make use of one trace, others prefer two. The most common plan is to lead two traces, so to speak, into one, as shown in the above illustration. Many drivers of great experience work their dogs abreast when the single trace arrangement is adopted. Others use a leader, harnessed ahead of the other dogs.

Dr. Hayes, the Arctic explorer, thus writes regarding his dogs: "We harness them each with a single trace, and these traces are of a length to suit the fancy of the driver, the longer the better, for they are then not so easily tangled. The draught of the outside dogs is more direct, and if the team comes on thin ice and breaks through, your chances of escape from immersion are in proportion to their distance from you. The traces are all of the same length, and hence the dogs run side by side, and, when properly harnessed, their heads are in a line. My traces are so measured that the shoulders of the dogs are just 20ft. from the foremost part of the runners."

HELPING THE DOGS.

Speed and the whip.

With a twelve-dog team, harnessed in this manner, a high rate of speed may be gained. Six measured miles have been run over a tolerably good surface in twenty-eight minutes. The direction and speed of the team are regulated partly by the voice, but mainly by the whip; and, as this instrument is so important and difficult to handle, we cannot resist giving the reader the benefit of the experience of Dr. Kane, than whom few have had greater experience in dog-sledge management. He thus describes the whip he used for his teams. "The whip is 6yds. long, and the handle but 16in., a short lever by which to throw out such a length of seal hide. Learn to do it, however, with a masterly sweep, or else make up your mind to forego driving a sledge, for the dogs are guided solely by the lash; and you must be able, not only to hit any particular dog out of the team of twelve, but to accompany the feat also with a resounding crack. After this, you find that to get your lash back involves another difficulty, for it is apt to entangle itself among the dogs and lines, or to fasten itself cunningly round bits of ice so as to drag you head over heels into the snow. The secret by which this complicated set of requirements is fulfilled consists in properly describing an arc from the shoulder, with a stiff elbow, giving the jerk to the whip handle from the hand and wrist alone. The lash trails behind as you travel, and when thrown forward is allowed to extend itself, without an effort to bring it back. You wait patiently after giving the projectile impulse until it unwinds its slow length, reaches the end of its tether, and cracks to tell you that it is at its journey's end. Such a crack on the ear or forefoot of an unfortunate dog is signalised by a howl quite unmistakable in its import. The mere labour of using this whip is such that the Esquimaux travel in couples, one sledge after the other. The hinder dogs follow mechanically and thus require no whip, and the drivers change about so as to rest each other.

SMOOTHING ROUGH RUNNERS.

Esquimaux sledges and expedients.

Many of the Esquimaux sledges are most ingeniously constructed-some being formed of light slabs of bone, lashed together with sinew and shod with runners composed of highly-polished walrus ivory. Should the surface of the runners become roughened from any cause, the Esquimaux fills his mouth with water, and then, by contracting his cheeks as in the act of blowing a trumpet, forces the water in a strong jet over the face of the runner. A coat of thin ice instantly forms, and becomes frozen firmly to the bone, producing a coating like that of glass. The above illustration will serve to show how this operation is conducted.

Sledge log, to make.

To estimate the speed at which a sledge is travelling, a log must be used. This is constructed as follows: A wooden reel and spindle, such as shown in the annexed engraving, must be made; round this the log line is coiled, leaving a free end for the log or weight, which may consist of a piece of scrap iron or a stone, to be attached to. About 20yds. from the log a bit of red rag should be knotted to the line; then at every 50ft. knot in a bit of seal hide. When about to use the log line, cast the weight well clear of the sledge, let the reel give off the line freely until the red rag is free. Directly that is off the coil, turn your half-minute glass up, and let the sand run, and when it is all down, stop the reel. It will be then seen, by the following calculation, what the speed has been. As 120 times half a minute make one hour, and 120 times 50ft. make very nearly a geographical mile, so many bits of hide will run clear of the revolving reel as the sledge travels miles in the hour.

Sledge equipment.

When fitting up your sledge equipment procure some large-sized marrow bones, and saw them up into a number of tolerably stout rings; then, from other bones of solid texture, make toggles to accompany the rings. These contrivances, shown in the above illustration, are invaluable for attaching leather straps to each other. A simple slit in the end of each strap admits of the toggle being passed through them, when its notched form prevents it from coming out again. Knots in dog harness tend to endless hitches and entanglements; and buckles, from being composed of metal, would be stolen to a certainty. Three modes of attaching strips of hide to each other are shown above. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate how the bone rings before described can be made use of. Fig. 3 shows two loops twisted over each other. A good-sized bladder, or skin bag, forms a convenient receptacle for both rings and toggles, of which make plenty.

Camping.

The habits of sledge dogs.

Food for the dogs.

When about to pitch camp, or whilst resting, drive the spears into the ice to secure the dogs to by short neck ropes. Most sledge dogs are trained to lie down when the whip handle is passed lightly along their backs. Never heedlessly quit your sledge whilst on the march, unless you have fast hold of the upstanders, or without first bringing it to an anchor. This can be done by thrusting a seal spear or lance down into the snow between the first two transverse bars of the sledge bottom. Should you neglect these precautions, you stand a good chance of seeing your runaway team go rattling off in the far distance, leaving you to follow as you best may. To check the speed of your sledge when you are on it, plant your heels on the snow and sit fast. It will be generally found that in every team there will be one master dog, who, by the use of a sharp set of teeth and a strong will, contrives to keep all the rest in subjection, and not unfrequently quells disorders among the quarrelsome pack by dashing in among them at the height of their constant skirmishes, and sending them head over heels to the right and left, thereby aiding his master in maintaining due discipline. Frozen or dried fish, and the offal of such animals as may be captured in the chase, are used as dog food. The Esquimaux usually feed their dogs but once in two days; it is better, however, to feed every day, but not until the work is finished, the journey ended, and the camp pitched. No dog works well on a full stomach. Great care should be exercised in the feeding of your dogs in order that all may share alike, as some are so desperately artful and cunning, that they do all in their power to delude their master into a belief that, instead of having had their full allowance, it is yet to come.

No northern traveller ever willingly allows his dogs to eat any portion of the liver of the polar bear, as it is pronounced by all the Esquimaux to be most unwholesome and injurious to dogs; they, therefore, either bury the bear's liver under the ice, or, if practicable, cast it into the sea. No sledge or portion of the sledge equipment in the construction or repair of which, thongs or tendons have been used should be left in reach of the dogs during the night, or they will be pretty sure to reduce the whole to a wreck before morning. With such makeshift sledges as have their runners made from rolls of frozen hide this precaution is especially necessary.

Hints on sledges.

The following hints on the subject of sledges, given by Dr. Kane, are most valuable, being the result of no ordinary experience. To encounter broken ice in the midst of darkness, and at a temperature destructive to life, everything depends upon your sledge; should it break down, you might as well break your own leg-there is no hope for you. Our sledge, then, is made of well-tired oak, dovetailed into a runner shod with iron; no metal is used besides except the screws and rivets which confine the sledge to its runners. In this intense cold, iron snaps like glass, and no immovable or rigidly fastened wood-work would stand for a moment the fierce concussions of a drive. Everything is put together with lashings of sealskin, and the whole fabric is the skeleton framework of a sledge as flexible as a lady's work-basket, and weighing only 40lb. On this we fasten a sacking bottom of canvas, tightly stretched, like its namesake of the four-post bedstead, around the margin. We call this ticking the apron and cover; the apron being a flap of 16in. high surrounding the cover, and either hanging loose at its sides, like a valance, or laced up down the middle. Into this apron and cover you pack your cargo-the less the better-and then lace and lash the whole securely together.

Rules for the march.

The following rules to be observed on the march or during a halt are valuable and practical to a degree. "Keep the blood in motion without loitering on the march; and for the halt raise a snow house, or, if the snow lie scant or impracticable, ensconce yourself in a burrow, or under the hospitable lee of an inclined hammack-slab. The outside fat of your walrus sustains your little moss fire; its frozen slices give you bread; its frozen blubber gives you butter; its scrag ends make the soup. The snow supplies you with water, and when you are ambitious of coffee there is a bagful stowed away in your boot. Spread out your bear bag, your only heavy movable, and stuff your reindeer bag inside, hang your boots up outside, take a blade of bone and scrape off all the ice from your furs. Now crawl in, the whole party of you, feet foremost, draw the top of your dormitory close, heading to leeward."

SLEDGING OVER ROUGH ICE.

Useful odds and ends.

Dogs' boots.

When about to start on a sledge journey, a certain number of useful matters will be required in addition to those already mentioned. A few green or blue gauze or tarlatan veils, to protect the eyes from the glare of the snow, will be found of the greatest value. In the absence of these, sledge men not uncommonly collect a quantity of the deposit of black found in the sconces of the lamps. This they mix with grease, and with it black the eyelids and upper part of the face. This expedient, although not equal to a veil, is far better than nothing. We have made use of green glass spectacles, but found them next to useless, as the glasses soon became coated with ice, formed from the condensed vapour given off with the breath. Never travel without a small pocket mirror; by its aid you can discover at once whether your nose or ears are becoming frost bitten, and can act accordingly. Directions for the treatment of frost bite will be given further on in our work. Never go without your possible sack, which should contain lots of hide strips, of all lengths and sizes, awls, needles, cord, leather, knife, whetstone, and any number of bone rings and toggles. A large fine-toothed rasp is of great service in fashioning bone; take one, or more; one handle will serve for all, and the sharp, tang ends serve to bore holes with. Few men have managed to reduce their sledge equipment to more simple elements than the doctor. He says, "My plans for sledging, simple as I once thought them, and simple, certainly, as compared with those of the English parties, have completely changed. Give me an 8lb. reindeer fur bag to sleep in, an Esquimaux lamp, with a lump of moss, a sheet-iron snow melter, or a copper soup pot, with a tin cylinder to slip over and defend it from the wind, a good pièce de résistance of raw walrus beef, and I want nothing more for a long journey if the thermometer will keep itself as high as minus 30°. Give me a bearskin bag, and coffee to boot, and with the clothes on my back I am ready for minus 60°, but no wind." During long journeys over rough and uneven ice the paws of the dogs are liable to become worn and sore. It is well, therefore, before encountering such hindrances to travel, to protect them with mocassins. These are made by rounding a piece of soft hide, with the hair side in, and then cutting all round its edge a number of small slits; through these a strip of hide is passed. The dog's paw is placed in the centre of the round. On the string being drawn home, the foot will be fitted as shown in the annexed illustration. Tolerably well-fed dogs will rarely eat these protections off, as they seem to know perfectly well what they are put on for. Mocassins are especially needed when there is a thin sharp crust of ice on the surface, and the pace rapid.

The tobogun sledge.

When the snow is soft, the form of sledge known as a "tobogun" is very useful, not only as a dog sledge, but as a convenient means of carrying packs, traps, or dead game; when used for these purposes, the hunter, who usually travels on snow shoes, draws it after him by a track line. The tobogun is made by either bending up the end of a tough plank by steam, or cutting the desired form of wood out of the solid with the axe.

Ice boards.

There is another kind of sledge somewhat on the tobogun principle, known as an ice board. This is made from exceedingly tough, elastic wood. It is turned up at the bow end like the toe of a skate, and usually measures about 1ft. wide by 8ft. long. It is made thus in order that it may freely pass along the narrow Indian trails across the lakes. This board, although tough and flexible enough to pass over the inequalities of the uneven way without breaking, is stiffened at the upturned prow by a piece of wood, which, being fastened inside the curve, preserves its bent form. Several cross bars, disposed at intervals in the line of the sledge, serve to add to its strength. The bridle or drawing point of the sledge is formed of hide, and is secured to the beak or stiffener. The team of dogs used in drawing this kind of conveyance is harnessed to two stiff tough poles, which project to the front. The load is so packed as to admit of its being divided equally throughout the entire length of the board to which it is secured, by passing two hide ropes along its sides from end to end. These side cords are attached by lashings to the cross bars, and form a series of points of attachment for the lashings which pass forward and back, and from side to side over the load. After being hauled up as tight as possible, there should be rope enough for two tail pieces to trail behind; these are useful to seize on when going down a slope, if the sledge requires turning, or in event of the dogs taking it into their head to bolt on a steep incline, the sledge, load and all, is turned on its side, and allowed to drag to the bottom, where it is set right, and proceeds as before.

Common dog sledge.

The travail sledge.

The common runner dog sledge is better adapted for travelling over tolerably hard snow, and the mode of harnessing the dogs is shown in the annexed engraving. The bearing points, chest band, and collar piece of the harness, should be made of thin soft hide, sewn double like an old fashioned shot belt, and then stuffed with hair-wool, pounded bark, fibre, or moss. A seal should be always drawn head first, as it travels thus with less than one-half the traction power. When the ground is hard, or in the absence of snow, dogs are frequently used to draw a contrivance known as a "travail"; this is made by attaching two long tough sticks, slightly turned up at the hind ends, to the neck collar of the dog. The small ends of the sticks should rest nearest the head of the dog; by some dog drivers these are made to just cross each other over the dog's neck, where they are bound to each other by a lashing of hide; others prefer attaching each stick in a line with the body of the dog, as in the above illustration. The travail sticks are padded at their points of contact, and kept asunder before and behind the load by cross bars of different lengths, the shortest being next the dog's hind legs. Horses are frequently equipped precisely in the same manner, as will be seen on reference to the engraving representing Indian lodges. A horse of fair average power will carry a travail load of about 212lb. twenty-five miles per day, and a good dog will draw 75lb. in the same way over prairie land.

Dog packs.

Such dogs as are not employed in pulling very often carry packs on their backs, as shown in the annexed illustration; these should be at all times very light, and the girths and breast strap wide enough to prevent undue pressure. We have seen the Tartars pack their dogs by placing a broad band of sheepskin with the wool inside round the dog, fasten it with loops and toggles, fit on a breast strap of the same material in the same way, and then secure the load to the girth by passing thongs through a set of bone rings sewn in for the purpose. The thongs pass across the load, and go through the rings on the opposite side, and thus secure the pack without compressing the dog, as shown in the accompanying illustration.

Horse sledges.

Field artillery sledges.

When horses are used for sledge drawing it is no uncommon practice to attach them to a conveyance formed by mounting a common carriage body on runners. We have seen the Russians use a most convenient and durable sledge body; it was formed of strong wicker work, strengthened by stringers of light wood, bound with lashings of raw hide. The runners were faced with steel, and the horses, three in number, worked abreast; that in the centre having a sort of arch or hoop over his neck. Bells should be used on all sledge teams, as the sledge glides along so noiselessly that collisions would be frequent without the cheerful warning note of the bells, which can be heard at a great distance in the clear frosty air. It is not our intention here to enter on the subject of sledges, as used by the sledge clubs for amusement or display, as they are not within our province. Field artillery can be easily worked on the surface of frozen lakes and rivers, by attaching runners instead of wheels to the guns and waggons. The recoil of guns, when fired from sledge runners, is often considerable, and many modes are adopted to govern it. The best makeshift plan we know is to prepare two long thick straw mats for each gun sledge, and before laying the gun, raise the breech ends of the runners by handspike power, to a sufficient height to admit of the mats being drawn well under them, when the handspike may be withdrawn, and the runners allowed to rest on the mats. A species of rough basket work formed from pine branches will answer the same purpose.

The reindeer sledge.

The reindeer is a most valuable animal for sledge drawing, and, from the immense number of animals of this description kept in a state of partial domestication in the north (it has been roughly computed that in Lapland alone there are 100,000), extensive use is made of them as beasts of burden, some being used as pack animals, and others worked on the snow in the form of sledge (represented in the opposite illustration) known as the kerres.

THE REINDEER SLEDGE OR "KERRES."

The mode of harnessing the deer is peculiar, the bridle loop, formed of tendons, being under the front of the sledge; this arrangement gives lifting power. Then a single trace, attached to this bridle, passes between the deer's hind legs, and is attached to the collar (which is well padded with hair), after passing through a loop in the back band, where it meets under the chest. The guiding rein is single near the sledge, where the driver holds it, but double near its termination; one part is fastened to the collar, whilst the other is secured to the deer's head. This rein is used much as our ploughmen use a plough rein; it is composed of strips of plaited hide, and, by a dexterous turn of the wrist and elbow, can be made to do the duty of a whip, and, although little control can be exercised over a wayward animal, a tractable one will perform journeys of surpassing length in a wonderfully short space of time; from seven to eight miles an hour over tolerably good ground may be considered average travelling. It is recorded, however, that an officer charged with important dispatches once travelled from Umea, which is situated in the Gulf of Bothnia, to the city of Stockholm in forty-eight hours with one deer (the distance is little short of 500 miles); but the life of the deer was sacrificed in the performance of the journey. The weight of a deer's load will depend much on the nature of the work he is engaged on; when employed in bringing in dead game, produce, &c., at a slow pace, he can easily draw 3 cwt., but when equipped for a rapid journey the weight drawn should not amount to more than from 230lb. to 245lb. English. Sledge deer not unfrequently perform some curious and inconvenient freaks with their drivers. Should they from any cause think themselves unfairly dealt with or harshly used, they immediately turn back on the conductor, who, to save himself, at once turns over the sledge and gets under it. The deer now tries to make use of his horns, but finds them of little avail against the mummy-like clothing of his skin-clad master, who usually settles the matter by the production of a lump of salt, which, when licked by the eager tongue of the irritated and cantankerous deer, acts like a charm in restoring order and a good understanding, when on he goes again as fresh and willingly as ever. In some parts of Siberia reindeer are regularly ridden, just as horses are in England and bullocks in Africa and the East.

Summer sledges.

Summer sledges of various forms are common to the whole world. We shall only deal with the most noteworthy and valuable to the settler or explorer. The most common of these, known as a wishing bone sledge, is made from a curved and forked branch cut off to the required length, a deep notch is cut at the point of the angle at the union of the fork to fasten the horses to, transverse pieces are treenailed across the prongs, the tail ends are slightly rounded up like the runners of a sledge, and the head is also curved in an upward direction with the axe, as seen in the above illustration. Sledges of this kind are very useful for the conveyance of rough heavy substances, such as building stone or mineral ores, packed in skin bags. Another useful form of farmer's or emigrant's sledge is also shown in the annexed illustration. Auger holes are bored through the ends of the runners, through which a strong wooden bar is passed, to this the traces are fastened.

Snow shoes.

The description of snow shoe used by the natives of different countries and localities vary just as much as the sledges. We can, therefore, only deal with the general principles of their construction and use. The "racquet" or snow shoe of the Canadians varies in length with the degree of supporting power of the snow. The form of the snow shoe is shown in the accompanying illustration. The frame or outside rim of the shoe is made from tough, light wood; ash is much used for the purpose. The network is often made from strips of moose skin, deer skin, or some other untanned hide. There are two modes by which the network is secured to the frame. One is to bore a train of gimlet holes at proper distances apart all round the frame, and with thin strips of hide or tendon passed alternately backward and forward through them, the side loops of the racquet work are taken up and tied fast to the frame. The other method consists in winding a long thin thong round the frame, and so binding the interlacing to it. The annexed illustration shows some other forms of the snow shoe.

The snow shoe is not strapped to the foot like the skate, but is fastened in two ways. First, there is an arrangement of strap through which the foot is thrust without the aid of the hands; the length and attachment of the thong being proportioned to the foot of the wearer; then there is an orifice left in the middle of the network in the centre line of the shoe, but nearer to the toe than the heel; into this hole the front part of the foot is thrust, much as one would put on an old heelless slipper.

In the adjustment of the shoe fastenings, the ball of the great toe is made to rest on what the Indians call the "bimikibison," or walking strap. This is secured by its ends to the frame of the shoe, and by its sides by means of short straps to the front cross bar. In addition to these, a small loop is attached to the walking strap of just sufficient length to allow the toes to pass through, but narrow enough to keep back the ball of the foot, which acts as a sort of stopper, and by its pressure lifts and pushes the shoe upwards and forwards. In order to prevent the foot from working its way backwards, a strap or sling, the "adiman," passes round the back of the heel. With this arrangement the foot works, so to speak, like a scale beam, the bearing part being the ball joint of the great toe, and as either end of the beam tilts up or down, so the shoe is dragged on or becomes a resting spot until its fellow passes skimmingly forward, leaving a well-marked pair of grooves behind the traveller.

Makeshift snow shoes are often made in the forest from light, tough boards. These are hewn into the rough form of a fish-broad before and narrow behind. The toe hole, or "eye" of the shoe, is cut as in the more perfect shoe, and an indentation is hewn out of the solid to admit of the foot always dropping into its proper position. These are generally used over very soft snow or swampy unsafe ground. The curved snow shoes shown in the illustration on p. 409 are at times over 6ft. long, and are used on open ground; the shorter kinds being better adapted for walking the forest, where roots and other impediments to travel abound.

Snow-shoe boots.

Such boots as are worn for ordinary travelling, are utterly useless to the snow-shoe runner, who could not perform his work in them. Here, again, customs vary with countries. The Esquimaux, after covering his feet well with birds' skins, encases them in coverings of sealskin, chewed pliant and soft by his loving spouse; over these he draws a pair of fur boots, made from the skins of bears' legs, with the feet left on. The mocassin is the form of foot gear best adapted for the use of the European traveller, and to put it on properly requires some little practice and management. The following directions will at any rate show the form and nature of the materials best calculated to insure comfort in walking and prevent frost bite. First make a pair of thick flannel cap socks, as shown in Fig. 1. These are merely flannel soles or socks with a toe cap sewn to them. These are put on just as you would put on slippers, over the crossed ends of the long flannel bandages which fold evenly under the toes on each side, and lap over each other. The long ends are now brought round the foot, over the sole, round the heel, and are wound evenly and spirally over and under each other until brought well up under the calf of the leg. Here they are fastened off by passing the free ends two or three times under the coil. The mocassin may now be fastened on over this arrangement, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, when a good thick pair of blanket leggings makes all complete for a tramp.

Norwegian skidor.

Unlike the snow shoes, the skidor of Lapland and Norway have no racquet work, but are merely long, narrow, upturned runners, to which the feet of the skid l?pare or traveller are strapped. A peculiar staff, with a projecting rim round it, is carried to aid in propelling, guiding, &c., when ascending or descending uneven surfaces. The annexed illustration will serve to give some idea of the way in which the skidor are used, but an immense deal of practice is required to make even a tolerably good skid l?pare.

Skates and their substitutes.

In some localities the shin bones of animals are used as aids in passing over frozen surfaces. One is securely strapped under the sole of each boot and made to act somewhat after the manner of a small sledge runner. On the use of skates we shall have little to say, as the art of plain, straightforward skating is too general to need more than a passing remark. We show in the accompanying illustration the mode of fastening which we have found most reliable for use on rough ice, and for hard work. We were many years ago advised to use it by a Dutchman who was celebrated for his feats in pace and distance; we adopted his plan and adhered to it.

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