Wonders of Creation

Volcanoes in general-Origin of the Name-General Aspect-Crater-Cone-Subordinate Cones and Craters-Peak of Teneriffe-Lava-Streams-Cascades and Jets of Lava-Variations in its Consistency-Pumice-Different Sorts of Lava-Obsidian-Olivine-Sulphur-Dust, Ashes, &c.-Volcanic Silk-Volcanic Islands-Volcanic Fishes-Hot Water, Mud, Vapours, &c-Volcanic storm-Explosions-Number of Volcanoes-King of the Volcanoes-Artificial Volcano.

Among the many wonderful works of God, none exhibits so much of awful grandeur as an active volcano. This name for a burning mountain was first applied to that which exists in the island anciently called Hiera, one of the Lipari group. It is derived from the name of the heathen god Vulcan, which was originally spelt with an initial B, as appears from an ancient altar on which were inscribed the words BOLCANO SAC. ARA. This spelling indicates the true derivation of the name, which is simply a corruption of Tubal-cain, who was "an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron" (Gen. iv. 22). The ancient heathen, having deified this personage, imagined, on first seeing a burning mountain, that Tubal-cain, or Vulcan, must have established his forge in the heart of it, and so, not unnaturally, named it Volcano-an appellation which the Island of Hiera retains to the present day.

The Cyclops-the supposed descendants of Vulcan, who were fabled to have been of gigantic stature, and to have had each only one eye in the centre of the forehead-were imagined to be the workmen who laboured in these underground forges. The noises, proceeding from the heart of the mountain, were attributed to their operations. It is to the Island of Hiera that Virgil alludes in the ?neid, lib. viii. 416. The passage is thus rendered by Dryden:-

"Sacred to Vulcan's name, an isle there lay,

Betwixt Sicilia's coasts and Lipare,

Raised high on smoking rocks, and deep below,

In hollow caves the fires of Etna glow.

The Cyclops here their heavy hammers deal;

Loud strokes and hissings of tormented steel

Are heard around; the boiling waters roar,

And smoky flames through fuming tunnels soar."

A volcano generally presents itself to the imagination as a mountain sending forth from its summit great clouds of smoke with vast sheets of flame, and it is not unfrequently so described. The truth is, however, that a real volcano seldom emits either true smoke or true flame. What is mistaken for smoke consists merely of vast volumes of fine dust, mingled with much steam and other vapours-chiefly sulphurous. What appears like flames is simply the glare from the glowing materials which are thrown up towards the top of the mountain-this glare being reflected from the clouds of dust and steam.

[Illustration: Peak of Teneriffe.]

The most essential part of a volcano is the crater, a hollow basin, generally of a circular form. It is often of large dimensions, and sometimes of vast depth. Some volcanoes consist of a crater alone, with scarcely any mountain at all; but in the majority of cases the crater is situated on the top of a mountain, which in some instances towers to an enormous height. The part of the mountain which terminates in the principal crater is usually of a conical form-much like a glass-house chimney, and is therefore named the cone. It is generally composed of loose ashes and cinders, with here and there masses of stone, which have been tossed into the air by the volcanic forces. In some mountains the cone rises out of a hollow at a considerable height from the base. A hollow of this kind is generally regarded as having been a former crater, which had become extinct before the existing cone was raised. There are sometimes formed lower down the mountain subordinate craters, smaller than that which occupies the summit of the cone. Within the crater itself there are frequently numerous little cones, from which vapours are continually issuing, with occasional volleys of ashes and stones.

One of the largest and most perfect of the volcanic cones in the world is that of the Peak of Teneriffe, of which you have here a representation. It conveys a good idea of the general form of the cone, and has long been a conspicuous and useful landmark to mariners. It is upwards of twelve thousand feet in height, and is said to be visible in very clear weather at a distance of a hundred miles.

The most interesting products of an active volcano are the streams of lava which it pours forth-sometimes from the principal crater on the summit-sometimes from the smaller craters lower down. This lava consists of melted stone. When it issues from the mountain its heat is intense and it glows like a furnace, so that, during the night especially, these fiery rivers present a grand yet awful spectacle. The streams spread themselves till they sometimes attain a breadth of several miles, with a depth of several hundred feet, and they flow onward till their length sometimes reaches fifty miles.

Lava, not being so liquid as water, does not flow so rapidly: nevertheless, when it is careering down the sides of a mountain, or where the slope of the ground is considerable, it advances with great speed. Even when at its hottest, it is somewhat viscid, like treacle, and this viscidness increases as it cools. Hence on a level plain, and at some distance from its source, the lava-stream advances at a leisurely pace. In such circumstances the cooling proceeds so quickly that a crust of considerable thickness is soon formed on the top of the current, and persons who are bold enough may cross the stream by means of this natural bridge. Even where the current continues flowing rapidly, this crust may be formed on its surface; and a man, whose curiosity exceeds his prudence, may stand on the top of it, bore a hole through the crust, and see the lava flowing underneath his feet!

Nothing can resist the progress of the lava-flood; trees, houses, everything yields to its massive assault, The trees take fire before its approach, and when it reaches them they emit a hissing noise almost amounting to a shriek, and then plunging into the molten flood are seen no more. Even the sea cannot withstand the lava-stream, but retires on its approach; so that promontories stretching to a considerable distance from the shore are formed in this manner, when the molten matter hardens into stone.

The eruptions of lava are sometimes attended by peculiarities which impart to them much additional grandeur. Instances have occurred in which the fiery stream has plunged over a sheer precipice of immense height, so as to produce a glowing cascade exceeding in breadth and perpendicular descent the celebrated Falls of Niagara. In other cases, the lava, instead of at once flowing down the sides of the mountain, has been first thrown up into the air as a fiery fountain several hundred feet in height. This happens when the great crater at the summit of the cone is full of liquid lava but does not overflow. Then, on the formation of an opening in the side of the cone, a good way down, the lava issuing from it is projected upwards to nearly the same height that it occupies in the interior of the crater at the top of the cone. It is hardly possible for the fancy to picture to itself anything so magnificent as such a fountain of liquid fire must be. A simple jet of water of considerable volume, thrown into the air to the height of a hundred feet, is itself a beautiful spectacle. What then must be a huge jet of glowing white lava projected to the height of several hundred feet, and with what an awful thundering sound must it come tumbling to the ground, thence to rush as a roaring torrent down the mountain's side!

Lava, when congealed, differs in its consistency according as it is near the top or near the bottom of the stream. When near the top it is porous, owing to its rapid cooling; when near the bottom it is dense, owing to its slow cooling and the great pressure to which it is subjected. When the lighter superficial lava is brought suddenly into contact with water, as when a lava-stream enters the sea, it becomes still lighter and more porous-forming the well-known substance called pumice, so much used for polishing. It may be regarded as the solidified froth of lava, and is so light that it floats on the surface of water.

The lavas of different mountains, when cooled and hardened, differ much in their appearance and composition. Among those of Iceland is found the beautiful black volcanic glass named obsidian. It is a good deal used for ornamental purposes; for it possesses the peculiar property of presenting a different appearance according to the manner in which it is cut. When cut in one direction it is of a beautiful jetty black; when cut across that direction it is glistering gray. The lavas of Vesuvius are generally of a brown colour, and are also used in the arts. In them are found the beautiful olive-green crystals of the mineral called olivine, sometimes used by jewellers. But the most useful of all volcanic productions is native sulphur, in which Mount Etna has been very prolific. It is to this mountain chiefly, therefore, that we are indebted for our beautiful fire-works-our squibs, crackers, Roman candles, serpents, Catherine-wheels, and sky-rockets. Would it had produced nothing more harmful than these! But it has also supplied one of the ingredients of that villainous gunpowder, which has been the means of thrusting so many of our fellow-creatures prematurely out of the world. Etna, however, can hardly be held responsible for this sad misuse of the valuable substance which it affords; while even gunpowder itself has, on the whole, been of vast benefit to mankind. Could we only refrain from shooting each other with it, we might regard it as an almost unmixed good; for it has helped us greatly in forming our roads, railways, and tunnels, and in working our quarries and mines.

In all great eruptions the flow of the lava is preceded by the ejection of vast quantities of volcanic dust, ashes, dross, slag, and loose stones. These are tossed into the air with tremendous violence, consequently, to a great height. The stones thus ejected are sometimes of immense size. A rock, whose weight is estimated at two hundred tons, was thrown from the summit of Cotopaxi to the distance of more than ten miles. Large stones have been tossed up by Vesuvius to the estimated height of three thousand six hundred feet. The dust of the volcano of St. Vincent was carried more than two hundred miles to the eastward in the teeth of the trade wind; consequently it must have been thrown to an enormous height, in order to its falling at so vast a distance from its source.

Besides the usual volcanic dust and ashes, there is sometimes thrown from the crater of a volcano a substance resembling spun-glass or asbestos. It possesses the flexibility and lustre of silk. The volcano of Salazes, in the Island of Bourbon, is remarkable for this substance, and it has there been seen to form a cloud covering the entire surface of the mountain. But it has also been found in other places. How curious it would be to have this volcanic silk spun into threads, and knitted into stockings or woven into a garment! Who can tell what may happen in these days of adventure and invention? Who knows but what some young reader, whose eye is now resting on this page, may yet live to present his ladylove with a pair of knitted gloves composed of the volcanic silk of Salazes?

Great as the contrast is between this filmy material and the ponderous blocks tossed into the air by Cotopaxi and Etna, it is not greater than that between the latter and other masses which have from time to time been upheaved by volcanic forces. Instances have occurred of whole islands having been raised from the bed of the ocean, or whole mountains upreared on the surface of the land, far away from the sea, and that too in the short space of a few hours. But of such we shall have occasion to speak more at large in the sequel.

Of all the extraordinary productions that have ever been thrown up by volcanoes, the strangest of all are fishes. How droll to dine upon fish cooked in a volcano! A queer fish it must be that likes to dwell in the bowels of a mountain-more especially of one whose entrails are mostly of liquid fire. But of this also more fully anon.

In addition to the solid materials thrown out by volcanoes, there are sometimes poured forth torrents of boiling water and liquid mud. More frequently, however, the water issues in the form of vast columns of steam and sulphurous vapour. These ascend to great heights in the air, and becoming gradually chilled, they form immense masses of dark heavy clouds, similar to those we observe before a thunderstorm. Nor is this resemblance apparent only. For the clouds that overhang an active volcano during an eruption of its vapours are, in reality, thunderclouds highly charged with electricity. They accordingly produce what Baron Humboldt calls the volcanic storm. It includes all the most terrible of atmospheric phenomena-lightnings of extraordinary vividness; thunders that peal and reverberate as if they would rend the echoes asunder; torrents of rain that pour down upon the mountain and its neighbourhood, hissing like thousands of serpents when they fall on the glowing lava-torrent; and whirlwinds that sweep the volcanic ashes round and round in vast eddies, and before whose violence no man of mortal mould is able for a moment to stand.

Beyond and above this din of contending elements are heard the hoarse bellowings of the mountain itself, which, meanwhile, trembles to its very core. The detonations from the volcano far exceed in loudness any other earthly noise. Compared with these, the pealing of the loudest thunder is but as the report of a musket contrasted with the simultaneous discharge of a thousand pieces of heavy ordnance. The explosions of Tomboro, and the vibrations accompanying them, have been heard and felt at almost incredible distances. Judge, then, of the immensity of the forces which are thus brought into play, and the overwhelming grandeur of the scene which such an eruption, with all its accompaniments of storm and tempest, must present to the bewildered eye and ear. Even to read of it sends a thrill through the nerves: what, then, must it be to listen and behold?

So far do we dwell from the nearest volcanoes, and so little are we familiar with the names except of a few, that not many persons are aware of the large number of burning mountains on the face of our globe. The total number, however, of those which are known to have been active within historic times is fully two hundred. Of these, the most familiar to us for its classic fame and its restless activity is Mount Vesuvius, which stands alone in its grandeur on the continent of Europe. The most violent in its activity is Tomboro, in the island of Sumbáwa. The highest is Cotopaxi, in the range of the Andes, which rises far into the region of perpetual snow. Its height is 16,800 feet above the level of the sea. Strange it seems, that volcanic fires should glow at such a height in the midst of snow and ice. But in this particular Cotopaxi does not stand alone. The Peak of Teneriffe, Mount Etna, and several others, also rise above the snow-line; while the burning mountains of Iceland, Greenland, and Kamtschatka, with those which rear their heads in the frozen regions near the South Pole, are for the most part enveloped in ice and snow from head to foot.

Before proceeding to describe to you some of the more interesting of the individual volcanoes and volcanic groups, it may be well to let you into a secret worth knowing. You would doubtless like to have a volcano all to yourself. Here is the receipt: Buy several pounds of clean iron filings, and a somewhat larger quantity of the flowers of sulphur. Mix the two together and knead them well with water into a stiffish paste. Then wrap this pudding in a cloth, and put another cloth about it, which has been smeared with common or coal-tar. Dig a hole in some quiet corner of your garden, pop your dumpling into it, and cover it well up with earth, treading it down firmly with your feet. Not many hours will elapse before you will see the ground swell like a molehill; an eruption will ensue, and you will be the happy possessor of a Stromboli of your own!

Volcanoes of Iceland-Mount Hecla-Earliest Eruption-Great

Eruption in 1845-Skaptàr Y?kul-Terrible Eruption in 1783-Rise

and Disappearance of Nyo?-Katlugaia-The Geysers-A very hot Bath

-Californian Geysers-Iceland-spar-Jan Mayen

We shall begin with the volcanoes of Iceland, of which the most interesting and active is Mount Hecla. The annexed woodcut will give you an idea of its appearance. You will observe the column of volcanic vapour ascending from the snow-clad summit of the cone, and how dreary and desolate is the aspect of the country at its base.

The earliest recorded eruption of Mount Hecla took place in the ninth century of the Christian era; but probably there had been many before that date. Since then there have been between twenty and thirty considerable eruptions of this mountain, and it has sometimes remained in a state of activity for upwards of six years with little intermission. It took a long rest, however, of more than sixty years' duration, prior to the year 1845, when it again burst forth. After a violent storm on the night of the 2nd of September in that year, the surface of the ground in the Orkney Islands was found strown with volcanic dust. There was thus conveyed to the inhabitants of Great Britain an intimation that Hecla had been again at work. Accordingly, tidings soon after arrived of a great eruption of the mountain. On the night of the 1st of September, the dwellers in its neighbourhood were terrified by a fearful underground groaning, which continued till mid-day on the 2nd. Then, with a tremendous crash, there were formed in the sides of the cone two large openings, whence there gushed torrents of lava, which flowed down two gorges on the flanks of the mountain. The whole summit was enveloped in clouds of vapour and volcanic dust. The neighbouring rivers became so hot as to kill the fish, and the sheep fled in terror from the adjoining heaths, some being burnt before they could escape.

On the night of the 15th of September, two new openings were formed-one on the eastern, and the other on the southern slope-from both of which lava was discharged for twenty-two hours. It flowed to a distance of upwards of twenty miles, killing many cattle and destroying a large tract of pasturage. Twelve miles from the crater, the lava-stream was between forty and fifty feet deep and nearly a mile in width. On the 12th of October a fresh torrent of lava burst forth, and heaped up another similar mass. The mountain continued in a state of activity up to April 1846; then it rested for a while, and began again in the following month of October. Since then, however, it has enjoyed repose.

The effects of these eruptions were disastrous. The whole island was strown with volcanic ashes, which, where they did not smother the grass outright, gave it a poisonous taint. The cattle that ate of it were attacked by a murrain, of which great numbers died. The ice and snow, which had gathered about the mountain for a long period of time, were wholly melted by the heat. Masses of pumice weighing nearly half a ton were thrown to a distance of between four and five miles.

[Illustration: Mount Hecla]

Mount Hecla is not the only volcano in Iceland. There are several others; and from one of them, named Skaptàr Y?kul, there was, in the year 1783, an eruption still more violent than that from Hecla above described. It began on the 8th of June, and raged with little abatement till the end of August, whence onward it continued, but with less violence, till the following year. The lava, in this case, poured from numerous openings; but these rivulets ultimately united themselves into two large currents, which flowed onwards to the sea. In their progress, these burning torrents filled up the beds of two considerable rivers. The greater of the two streams, after it had ceased to flow and had become a solid mass of rock, measured fifty miles in length, and between twelve and fifteen miles in breadth. Its average depth on the plains was about a hundred feet; but in the bed of the river, which it had filled, it was not less than six hundred feet. The snow and ice, which had previously covered the mountain, were not only melted, but the water that flowed from them was raised to the boiling point, and poured down with destructive effect on the plains. The dust and ashes thrown into the air darkened the sun; and they were then strown over the surface of the island, destroying all the pastures, so that many thousands of cattle, horses, and sheep perished. But worse than that, upwards of nine thousand persons lost their lives by this dreadful catastrophe.

About a month before this great eruption of Skaptàr Y?kul, a volcanic island was thrown up from the sea, at a distance of about seventy miles from Iceland. So great was the quantity of ashes and dross ejected from its crater, that it overspread the sea to a distance of a hundred and fifty miles, forming a crust which obstructed the progress of ships. Portions of this crust floated as far as the Shetland and Orkney islands. The King of Denmark named this fiery apparition "Nyo?," or "New Island," and doubtless prided himself not a little on this addition to his limited dominions. But, alas, for human ambition! About a year after the date of its first appearance, Nyo? sank into the depths out of which it arose, and its position is now marked only by a moderate shoal.

It is not by their ejected lavas alone that the volcanoes of Iceland produce their destructive effects. Disastrous consequences have frequently resulted from the sudden melting of their snows and glaciers, on which the volcanic fires operate far more rapidly than does the heat of the sun. It is chiefly by the vast quantities of earth, sand, stones, and broken fragments of rock, which they hurry along with them in their wild career, that the waters, so suddenly freed, produce the greatest amount of damage. During an eruption of Katlugaia, one of the southern Icelandic volcanoes, in 1756, the mass of material thus carried down by the melted snows and glaciers was so great, that, advancing several leagues into the sea, it formed three parallel promontories, which rose above the sea-level, where there had formerly been a depth of forty fathoms of water. Vast ravines were, at the same time, scooped out of the sides of the mountain by the erosion of the waters. Another eruption of this volcano in 1860 produced similar results.

Still more interesting than the volcanic mountains of Iceland are its Geysers, or intermittent springs of boiling water. The chief of these is the Great Geyser. A jet rises to a vast height, and is accompanied by much steam. Indeed, it is quite at the boiling-point.

The little mound, from the top of which the jet appears to rise, is composed of a substance named siliceous sinter, and is a deposit from the water of the fountain. At the top of this mound, which is between six and seven feet in height, there is an oval basin, measuring about fifty-six feet in one direction, and about forty-six in the other; its average depth is about three feet. In the centre of this basin is a round hole, about ten feet in diameter, out of which the water springs. This hole is the mouth of a circular well, between seventy and eighty feet in depth. It is down this well that the jet retires on its disappearance; and it drags along with it all the water out of the basin, leaving both basin and well quite empty, without even a puff of steam coming out of the hole. In this state of emptiness the basin and well remain for several hours. Suddenly the water begins to rise in the well, overflowing till it fills the basin. Loud explosions are heard from below, and the ground trembles. Then, with amazing violence, up springs a vast column of boiling water, surmounted by clouds of steam, which obscure the air. This first jet is followed by several others in rapid succession, to the number of sixteen or eighteen; the last jet being usually the greatest of all, and attaining a height of nearly a hundred feet. In some instances it has risen to a height of a hundred and fifty feet; and one particular jet was measured which rose to the amazing height of two hundred and twelve feet.

The action of the fountain seldom continues more than about five minutes at a time, and then a repose of several hours ensues. If left to itself, the periods of the fountain's activity, though not quite regular, generally recur at intervals of six or seven hours. But they may be hastened by throwing big stones down the well. This not only hurries the eruption of the jet, but increases its energy, and the stones are thrown out with great force by the column of boiling water; the loudness of the explosions being also considerably augmented.

There are several other geysers in the island besides this big one. Their jets are smaller, but to compensate this deficiency, they are more frequent in their ascent; so that travellers who are too impatient to await the eruptions of the Great Geyser, content themselves with visiting the little ones.

Would it not be very convenient to live near a geyser? We might have our victuals cooked by it, and have pipes led from it all round our house, to keep us comfortable in winter; and we might have nice hot baths in our dressing-rooms, arid even a little steam-engine to roast our meat and grind our coffee. But perhaps you may think it might not be altogether pleasant to be kept so continually in hot water.

Were any of the water from the geyser to fall on your hands, you would doubtless feel it rather sore; still more so, were you to be so rash as to thrust your hand fairly into the jet of boiling water, as it ascends into the air. Nevertheless, strange as it may seem, it would be possible for you, without feeling any pain or sustaining any injury, to thrust your hand right into the glowing lava as it flows from the crater of Hecla. The only precaution needful to be observed, is first to plunge the hand into cold water, and then dry it gently with a soft towel, but so as to leave it still a little moist. This discovery was made by a French philosopher, M. Boutigny, and has been practically proved both by him and M. Houdin, the celebrated conjuror, by thrusting their hands into molten iron, as it flowed from the furnace. The latter describes the sensation as like what one might imagine to be felt on putting the hand into liquid velvet.[1] The reason why this experiment proves so harmless is that between the skin and the glowing substance there is formed a film of vapour, which acts as a complete protection. It is this elastic cushion of vapour which imparts that feeling of softness described by M. Houdin; for it is with it alone that the hand comes into contact.

[1. Houdin's Autobiography, ii 270]

Geysers have been recently discovered in California; but the jets do not rise higher than twenty or thirty feet. They are, however, very numerous, there being upwards of a hundred openings within a space of half a mile square. The vapour from the whole group rises to upwards of a hundred and fifty feet into the air. The boiling water issues from conical mounds, with great noise. The whole ground around them is a mere crust, and when it is penetrated the boiling water is seen underneath. The Californian geysers, however, are impregnated, not with silica, like those of Iceland, but with sulphur, of which they form large deposits. The sulphurous vapours from the water corrode the rocks near the fountains; nevertheless trees grow, without injury to their health, at a distance from them of not more than fifty feet.

Besides obsidian, already mentioned as a product of its volcanoes, Iceland is famed for another mineral of great scientific value. It is that fine variety of carbonate of lime named Iceland-spar. Transparent and colourless, like glass, this mineral possesses the property of double refraction-any small object viewed through it in a particular direction appearing double. It is much used for optical purposes-especially for obtaining polarized light.

There is another volcano lying far to the northward of Iceland. It is in the island of Jan Mayen, off the coast of Greenland, and has on its summit a vast crater, 2000 feet in diameter, and 500 in depth.

Mount Vesuvius-Origin of Name-Former Condition-Eruption of A D 79-Death of Pliny-Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum-Appearance of the Mountain before and after Eruption-Formation of Monte Nuovo-Eruption of Boiling Water-Coloured Vapours-Cascade of Lava-Discovery of Remains of Herculaneum and Pompeii-The Buildings of Pompeii-Street of Tombs-Skeletons-Sundry Shops-Ascents of Vesuvius-Crater-Temple of Serapis.

Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, and it is highly interesting both from its historical associations and the frequency of its eruptions. It is situated on the coast of the Bay of Naples, about six miles to the eastward of the city and at a short distance from the shore. It forms a conspicuous feature in the beautiful landscape presented by that bay, when viewed from the sea, with the city in the foreground.

Mount Vesuvius was in ancient times held sacred to the deified hero Hercules, and the town of Herculaneum, built at its base, was named after him. So also, it is said, was the mountain itself, though in a more round-about way. Hercules, as you will doubtless learn, was feigned to have been the son of the heathen god Zeus and Alcmena, a Theban lady. Now one of the appellations of Zeus was Υη?, which was applied to him as being the god of rains and dews-the wet divinity. Thus Hercules was Υησουυιο?, the son of Ves. How this name should have become corrupted into "Vesuvius," you can be at no loss to perceive.

Vesuvius was not always a volcano. It was for many ages a very peaceable and well-behaved mountain. Ancient writers describe it as having been covered with gardens and vineyards, except at the top which was craggy. Within a large circle of nearly perpendicular cliffs, was a flat space sufficient for the encampment of an army. This was doubtless an ancient crater; but nobody in those times knew anything of its history. So little was the volcanic nature of the mountain suspected, that the Roman towns of Stabi?, Pompeii, and Herculaneum had been erected at its base, and their inhabitants dwelt in fancied security.

In the year A.D. 63, however, the dwellers in the cities got a great fright; for the mountain shook violently, and a good many houses were thrown down. But soon all became quiet again, and the people set about rebuilding the houses that had fallen. They continued to live in apparent safety for some time longer. They danced, they sung, they feasted; they married, and were altogether as merry a set of citizens as any in southern Italy. But the 24th of August A.D. 79 at length arrived. Then, woe to Stabi?! woe to Pompeii! woe to Herculaneum!

Pliny the elder was that day in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, which was not far off. His family were with him, and, among others, his nephew, Pliny the younger, who has left an interesting account of what happened on the occasion. He observed an extraordinary dense cloud ascending in the direction of Vesuvius, of which he says:-"I cannot give you a more exact description of its figure, than by resembling it to that of a pine tree; for it shot up to a great height in the form of a tall trunk, which spread out at the top into a sort of branches. It appeared sometimes bright, and sometimes dark and spotted, as it was either more or less impregnated with earth and cinders"

On seeing this remarkable appearance, the elder Pliny, who was a great naturalist and a man of inquiring mind, resolved to go ashore and inspect more narrowly what was going on. But a rash resolve it proved. Steering towards Retina (now Resina), a port at the foot of the mountain, he was met, on his approach, by thick showers of hot cinders, which grew thicker and hotter as he advanced-falling on the ships along with lumps of pumice and pieces of rock, black but burning hot. Vast fragments came rolling down the mountain and gathered in heaps upon the shore. Then the sea began suddenly to retreat, so that landing at this point became impracticable. He therefore steered for Stabi?, where he landed, and took up his abode with Pomponianus-an intimate friend.

Meanwhile, flames appeared to issue from several parts of the mountain with great violence-the darkness of the night heightening their glare. Pliny nevertheless went to sleep. Soon, however, the court leading to his chamber became almost filled with stones and ashes; so his servants awoke him, and he joined Pomponianus and his household. The house now began to rock violently to and fro; while outside, stones and cinders were falling in showers. They, notwithstanding, thought it safer to make their way out from the tottering mansion; so, tying pillows upon their heads with napkins, they sallied forth. Although it was now day, the darkness was deeper than that of the blackest night. By the aid of torches and lanterns, however, they groped their way towards the beach, with a view to escape by sea; but they found the waves too high and tumultuous. Here Pliny, having drunk some cold water, lay down upon a sailcloth which was spread for him; when almost immediately flames, preceded by a strong smell of sulphur, issuing from the ground, scattered the company and forced him to rise. With the help of two of his servants he succeeded in raising himself; but, choked by some noxious vapour, he instantly fell down dead.

[Illustration: Vesuvius Before the Eruption of A.D. 79.]

Nor was he alone in his death; for although many of the inhabitants of the devoted cities were able to effect their escape; yet, so suddenly did the overwhelming shower of ashes, cinders, and stones fall upon them, that not a few of them perished in their dwellings or their streets. As for the cities themselves, they were utterly buried completely out of sight, and, like other things that are long out of sight, they soon became also buried out of mind. For many centuries they remained entirely forgotten.

You will doubtless like to know how Vesuvius looked, after doing so much mischief. Here is a picture showing what like it was immediately before the eruption; and one showing its appearance soon after the event. On comparing the two, you will observe the mountain had undergone a great change. It was no longer flat on the top, but had formed for itself a large cone, from the summit of which dense vapours ascended. This cone was composed entirely of the ashes, cinders, and loose stones, thrown up during the eruption. It had become separated by a deep ravine from the remainder of the former summit, which afterwards came to be distinguished by the name Monte Somma. The whole of the forests, vineyards, and other luxuriant vegetation, which had covered that portion of the sides of Vesuvius where the eruption took place, were destroyed. Nothing could be more striking than the contrast between the beautiful appearance of the mountain before this catastrophe, and its desolate aspect after the sad event. This remarkable contrast forms the subject of one of Martial's Epigrams, lib. iv. Ep. 44. It is thus rendered by Mr. Addison:-

[Illustration: Vesuvius after the Eruption of A.D. 79.]

"Vesuvius covered with the fruitful vine

Here flourished once, and ran with floods of wine.

Here Bacchus oft to the cool shades retired,

And his own native Nysa less admired.

Oft to the mountain's airy tops advanced,

The frisking Satyrs on the summit danced.

Alcides [1] here, here Venus graced the shore,

Nor loved her favourite Lacedaemon more.

Now piles of ashes, spreading all around,

In undistinguished heaps deform the ground.

The gods themselves the ruined seats bemoan,

And blame the mischiefs that themselves have done."

[1. Hercules]

Since the eruption of A.D. 79, Vesuvius has had many fits of activity with intervals of rest. In A.D. 472, it threw out so great a quantity of ashes, that they overspread all Europe, and filled even Constantinople with alarm. In A.D. 1036 occurred the first eruption in which there was any ejection of lava. This eruption was followed by five others, the last of which occurred in 1500. To these succeeded a long rest of about a hundred and thirty years, during which the mountain had again become covered with gardens and vineyards as of old. Even the inside of the crater had become clothed with shrubbery.

In this interval, however, there was an extraordinary eruption-not of Vesuvius itself, but at no great distance from it, in the Bay of Bai?, on the opposite shore of the Bay of Naples. The whole of this neighbourhood is a volcanic country, and was anciently named the Phlegr?an Fields. It contains a crater in a state of subdued activity, called the Solfatara; an extinct volcano having a large crater called Monte Barbaro; and Lake Avernus, also supposed to be an extinct volcanic crater. Between Monte Barbaro and the sea, there was formerly a fiat piece of ground bordering on the Lucrine Lake, which is separated from the Bay of Bai? by a narrow strip of shingle. On the 29th of September 1538, the flat piece of ground above mentioned became the scene of a great eruption, which resulted in the throwing up of a new elevation to the height of four hundred and thirteen feet, and with a circumference of eight thousand feet. It received the name of Monte Nuovo, and is now covered with a luxuriant vegetation.

In 1631 there was another dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which covered with lava most of the villages at the foot of the mountain. To add to the calamity, torrents of boiling water were, on this occasion, thrown out by the volcano, producing awful destruction.

There have been since that time numerous eruptions, which it would be tedious to mention in detail; but two of them are worthy of notice. During an eruption in February 1848, a column of vapours arose from the crater about forty feet high, presenting a variety of colours; and a short time afterwards there arose ten circles, which were black, white, and green, and which ultimately assumed the form of a cone. A similar appearance had been observed in 1820. More recently, in May 1855, a great stream of glowing lava, about two hundred feet in breadth, flowed towards a vast ravine nearly a thousand feet in depth. The first descent into this chasm is a sheer precipice, over which the lava dashed heavily, forming a magnificent cascade of liquid fire.

Of the buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii no traces were discovered till the year 1713, when some labourers, in digging a well, came upon the remains of Herculaneum about twenty-four feet underground. Little attention, however, was paid to the discovery at that time; but in 1748 a peasant, digging in his vineyard, stumbled on some ancient works of art. On sinking a shaft at this spot to the depth of twelve feet, the remains of Pompeii were found. This discovery led to further researches, and the exact positions of the two cities were erelong ascertained. The work of disinterment has continued with little interruption from that to the present time, and many valuable specimens of ancient art have been brought to light.

The greatest progress has been made at Pompeii; because the stuff, in which it was buried, is far looser than that which covers Herculaneum. In the former city, although it was anciently reckoned only a third-rate place, there have already been discovered eight temples, a forum, a basilica, two theatres, a magnificent amphitheatre, and public baths. The ramparts, composed of huge blocks of stone, have also been exposed. One of the most remarkable places is the Cemetery. It consists of a broad path covered with pavement, and bordered on either side with stately monuments, placed over the tombs of the wealthy citizens of the place, and in which whole families have been interred.

The houses were found filled with elegant furniture, the walls of the apartments adorned with beautiful paintings. Numerous statues, vases, lamps, and other elegant works of art, have been recovered. Many skeletons have also been found, in the exact positions in which the living men were caught by the deadly shower of suffocating ashes. The excavators came upon the skeleton of a miser, who had been attempting to escape from his house, and whose bony fingers were still clutching the purse which contained the treasure he loved. There were also found in the barracks at Pompeii the skeletons of two soldiers chained to the stocks; and the writings scribbled by the soldiers on the walls are still quite legible. In the vaults of a villa in the suburbs were discovered the skeletons of seventeen persons, who had probably sought refuge there, and been entombed. The stuff in which they were imbedded had been originally soft, but had become hardened through time. In this substance was found a cavity, containing the skeleton of a female with an infant in her arms. Although nothing but the bones remained, the cavity contained a perfect cast of the woman's figure-thus showing that she must have been imbedded in the substance while alive. Round the neck of this skeleton there was a gold chain, and on the fingers jewelled rings.

In many of the houses the names of the owners over the doors are still legible, and the fresco-paintings on the inner walls are still quite fresh and beautiful. The public fountains are adorned with shells formed into patterns; and in the room of a painter there was found a collection of shells in perfectly good order. A large quantity of fishing-nets was found in both the cities, and in Herculaneum some pieces of linen retaining its texture. There also was discovered a fruiterer's shop, with vessels full of almonds, chestnuts, carubs, and walnuts. In another shop stood a glass vessel containing moist olives, and a jar with caviare-the preserved roe of the sturgeon. In the shop of an apothecary stood a box that had contained pills, now reduced to powder, which had been prepared for a patient destined never to swallow them-a happy circumstance for him, if he eventually escaped from the city. Very recently there has been laid open a baker's shop, with the loaves of bread on the shelves, all ready for his customers, but doomed never to be eaten. These loaves are of the same form as those still made in that country, and on being analyzed were found to consist of the same ingredients as modern bread.

Mount Vesuvius rises rather abruptly from the plain on which it stands. The circuit of the base is about twelve miles, and the height of the summit above the level of the sea about three thousand feet. This latter measurement, however, alters from time to time, owing to the variable height of the cone. Its moderate elevation, and the ease with which it may be approached, have induced many travellers to ascend the mountain; and not a few have recorded their experiences. So frequent are the eruptions of the volcano, however, and so much do they change the aspect of the crater, that any description remains correct for only a limited time.

Within the last hundred years the crater has been five times wholly altered, in consequence of its interior having been completely blown out, and its walls having crumbled down. When Sir William Hamilton ascended the mountain in 1756, it had no less than three craters and cones, one within another. The outermost was a very wide-mouthed cone. Within it rose centrically another, smaller in size and narrower in the mouth; and within that again was the third and highest, having a smaller base and still narrower opening at the top, whence the greatest volume of vapour ascended. In 1767 this innermost cone merged in the second, which was greatly enlarged; and by a subsequent eruption the interval between the first and second was obliterated, so that only a single cone remained. In 1822 the whole interior of the cone was blown out, and its walls crumbled down, so as to lower the height of the mountain several hundred feet. But within the vast gulf, nearly a mile in diameter, which was thus left yawning open, there soon began to be formed a new cone, which showed itself erelong above the jagged edge of the crater. Eventually this cone increased, by the accumulation of ejected matters, to such an extent as to obliterate the division between it and the rim of the former crater-thus once more establishing a continuous cone. Since that time, the cone and crater have twice undergone similar changes.

The most usual appearance of the crater, when in comparative repose, is that of a vast circular or oval hollow basin, with nearly perpendicular walls, broken in their continuity, every here and there, by large projecting dykes, formed by the injection of more recent lavas into fissures rent in those which had previously become consolidated. Below the perpendicular walls is a rapid slope, composed of fine ashes or sand, descending to the floor of the crater, which is, for the most part, nearly flat. It is much rent by fissures, which during the night are seen to glow with a ruddy glare, emanating from the hot materials beneath, and giving to the floor the appearance of being overspread with a fiery tissue, like a spider's web. From the bottom there usually rise one or two small craters of eruption, whence continually issue sulphurous fumes, and which, at pretty regular intervals, discharge showers of stones heated to whiteness.

The exterior of the cone is composed entirely of loose cinders, ashes, and stones, so that the ascent is very laborious. The region of the mountain beneath the cone presents no difficulties, and that part of the ascent may be performed on donkeys or mules. The view from the top is magnificent. The contrast between the desolate aspect of the interior of the crater, and the smiling prospect which may be seen from its edge, has been well compared to looking out of Tartarus into Paradise.

Near Puzzuoli, in the Bay of Bai?, and not far from Monte Nuovo, stand the ruins of the Temple of Serapis, so interesting to geologists. These remains, consisting chiefly of the shafts of three marble columns, still erect, though with a slight inclination sea-ward, afford distinct proofs, confirmed by other phenomena in the neighbourhood, that, since the beginning of the Christian era, the level of the coast in relation to that of the sea has changed twice-the land having first sunk and been then raised again, each time to the extent of upwards of 20 feet. The evidence of the submergence of the pillars consists mainly of a zone commencing at the height of about 12 feet above their pedestals, and extending 9 feet upwards, in which are numerous perforations, made by a marine bivalve mollusc. The upraising again of the ground on which the temple stands, to nearly its original height, appears to have occurred about the time of the formation of Monte Nuovo.