Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life, Travel & Exploration

Equipment to be purchased in England.

In dealing with this portion of our subject we can but generalise, as the destination of the traveller and the objects he has in view will materially modify the nature and extent of his equipment. The military officer who is bound on a long march, through a comparatively wild country, needs a very different outfit from that which a hunter or trader of experience would procure for himself before starting for the home of the elephant and the savage. The man who, with his wife and family, seeks a new home beyond the border line which divides the unreclaimed wilderness from civilised society, needs an infinitely more voluminous store of requisites-not to say comforts-than the small band of hardy explorers or hunter naturalists, who, with horse, mule, pack and rifle, wend their way over prairies and mountains without path, and thread the forests and thickets where no traveller has penetrated. There are other members of the human family who prefer prosecuting their wanderings alone, carry all their worldly possessions with them, and whose equipment is usually of a particularly simple and practical character. The sea, the inland lake, and the rivers flowing through little known regions, each have their explorers, for whose use a variety of contrivances are needed. Some of these are best made at home; others it will be found most convenient to prepare in the localities in which their aid are required; whilst at times adverse circumstances will render it necessary to improvise rough and ready appliances to save life and prolong its duration when saved. We shall therefore endeavour to give such hints and directions as will enable our readers who intend visiting far-off countries to select such matters as may be best purchased before quitting England, and to avoid encumbering themselves with useless impedimenta. As we have first made mention of the military officer about to depart on service, we will suppose that he is in London, or any other large town, gathering together his traps for a start. We will then accompany him on his shopping expeditions, and give him a few hints as to what will prove most useful. On matters of uniform we can have nothing to say further than to advise, as we do in every case of purchase, that it be obtained from some tradesman of well-established reputation. The raiment calculated to meet the requirements of refined society, when the uniform is for the time cast aside, must also be left to the dictates of the prevailing mode and the good taste of the wearer.

Shirt making and clothing.

Where fashion and the dress regulations of the army end there do we begin, and as flannel is, perhaps, the most important as an article of under clothing, we will first make a few remarks on shirts of that material, of which plenty should be taken. First, then, have them made to measure from flannel which has been previously well shrunk, of thoroughly good quality, of medium substance, and unobtrusive pattern or colour. It will be well to order them of extra length, both of sleeve and body, so as to allow for the shrinkage which is certain to take place after a few washings, in spite of all precautions. Two breast pockets should be made in each. These are very convenient for holding a variety of small matters when no waistcoat is worn. For outer clothing nothing can surpass good heather-coloured tweed, or Waterford frieze, for ordinary wear; jackets of shooting-coat pattern, made with plenty of pockets, formed from much stronger materials than are usually made use of by tailors for that purpose, will be found most useful for knocking about in. One or two pairs of trousers may be strapped up the inside and bottoms of the legs with leather, after the cavalry rough-rider pattern. A pair or two of Oxford cord hunting breeches will also be found useful to wear with long boots, with ankle jacks and gaiters. The waistcoats should be cut rather long, made with four pockets, two breast and two bottom. All these should have flaps or "salt-box" covers to them. Each half of the waistcoat, from about the level of the bottom button and button-hole to where the back is joined in, should be lined with a strip of leather. A long loose gaberdine of woollen stuff, made to button up the front, and secured round the waist by a long narrow scarf or "cummerbund," is an immense comfort in camp or quarters, let the climate be hot or cold. A good supply of reddish-brown woollen socks should be laid in; a moderate number of long stockings, of the same material, to wear with the breeches; and a few dozen pairs of the "heelless cotton" socks, for use on board ship, or when the weather is hot; nothing can be more agreeable to wear, except silk, and the cost is a mere trifle when compared to that of other hosiery. White cotton pocket handkerchiefs, as a rule, last their owners very much longer than silk, being less tempting to native servants or followers. Braces should be always ordered of the saddler, and made from the material used for the surcingles of racehorses. One pair of these lasts longer than half-a-dozen of the flimsy affairs usually sold ready made. There are those who dispense with braces, find great relief by the practice, and wear an ordinary waist-belt instead; but to some persons much discomfort is caused by so doing. A soft felt hat, with a moderately wide brim, is a convenient head dress in most temperate climates. With the head gear made use of in the tropics and the far north we shall have to speak hereafter. The best gloves for general and moderately rough usage are those sold under the name of driving gloves. They should be obtained of the regular glover, and have buckskin let in between the fingers. A pair of common hedging gloves well repays the trouble of taking, when the brush of the thicket has to be handled and firewood arranged.

Hats, ground sheets, and india-rubber garments.

Take a blue cloth pilot coat, cut long enough to reach just below the knees; have it lined throughout with woollen material; let the pockets be made extra strong, and order the buttons to be large, of black horn, and sewn on with double-waxed thread. The left hand breast pocket should be deep and lined with leather, as it not unfrequently becomes a resting-place for the revolver when you do not wish to make an ostentatious display of it. Get a couple of real Scotch caps, such as the Highland shepherds wear; nothing can equal them for sleeping in when camping out, and they form a most convenient head-covering for camp use, or when the sun is not too powerful. Get from some sailors' outfitter a regular seagoing sou'wester hat, with ear and neck flaps, and a pair of oiled canvas overalls to match. Procure also from some first-class maker a thoroughly good india-rubber coat; long enough to come well below the tops of the butcher boots. Buttons should be sewn in at the back and sides of the collar, in order to admit of a hood of the same material being put on when needed. An arrangement of this kind we have found most useful for boat work and in heavy tropical rains. Order also a piece of the best Russia duck, 9ft. by 8ft.; have this subjected to the waterproofing process; have the edges turned in to form a 2in. hem; and at every two feet, at both sides and ends, have good sized wide flanged brass eyelets punched in. Then in the centre of the piece have a longitudinal slit made 16in. in length, have the raw edge bound with a broad strong tape, and at every 3in. on each side have an eyelet of less size than those at the edges put in. This arrangement admits of the slit being laced close when it is not required. A waterproof square of this kind is useful for an almost endless number of purposes. In the first place it can be used as a ground sheet to sleep on; it can, by thrusting the head through the unlaced opening, be converted into an excellent cloak; it can by fastening strings and pegs to the sides, and cutting a ridge pole, be converted into a very fair substitute for a small tent; it forms an excellent carpet to lay by the side of the tent bed, when you are fortunate enough to be able to use one, keeping down insects, and protecting the feet from sharp grass, stumps, and twigs. If during rain the tent should admit water, as it sometimes will (especially if heedlessly touched when saturated with moisture), this universal square of duck can by the aid of some upright sticks or canes, one at the head and another at the foot of the bed, and a bit of rope stretched like a clothes line from one to the other, be at once made use of as a roof to the bed, the sides being made to slope and stand out by attaching pieces of twine to a few of the side poles. Clothes and other matters can be securely carried when rolled up in this, even in the heaviest rain. On a pinch, even a river might be crossed with its assistance, but the method adopted for constructing extempore rafts, boats, canoes, and floats, will be fully treated on when that subject comes under consideration.

Boots and shoes.

Boots and shoes for real work are in no part of the world equal to those made at home, and a thoroughly good stock should be laid in before quitting England; "butcher boots," so made as to fit the leg compactly just below the bend of the knee, with low heels, and broad heel seats; several pairs of shooting boots of the regular ankle-jack gamekeeper's pattern, tipped at toe and heel. A pair or two of high shoes made from soft undressed russet leather will be found very useful to wear instead of slippers, or for camp use when the ground is dry. A pair of Cording's wading boots will be found invaluable. They occupy little space, are comparatively light, and keep the legs and feet dry and warm when nothing else will. The late Mr. Wheelwright-better known in the sporting and scientific world as the "Old Bushman"-thus speaks of them in a communication to the Field: "I can add the testimony of five years' experience to all you can say in their favour. For wading, flight shooting, boat fishing or punting, and all winter water work, they are invaluable. They are a little too heavy for a hard day's walking, and soon cut through in the leg or foot among stakes or bushes; but use them carefully, and they will be found by far the best water boots ever made. They are very warm, stand a long while, are perfectly water-tight to the last, and they have this advantage over a leather boot-they want no dressing. Only never keep them near a fire. I lost three or four pairs in the bush by neglecting to draw them off before I lay down for the night before a camp fire. And what is worth all the rest, they never get hard, but are always as easy to draw off and on as a glove." It will be well also to provide two or three pairs of brown leather shooting boots without heels and with single soles, free from nails, and flexible enough to admit of the wearer walking softly and with perfect freedom.

Foot gear, adapted to the nature of most countries to which the traveller is likely to proceed, will be fully described when bush shoemaking is under consideration.

It will be well also to procure from a saddler a good supply of bootlaces. These should be cut straight and in the way of the grain of the hide. The white leather used by carters for mending their harness is by far the best for the purpose. Strips of this cut to about the eighth of an inch square, and well greased with mutton suet, are next to indestructible, and are available for all sorts of purposes apart from that of lacing boots or shoes. Slightly burning or roasting the ends in the candle or fire hardens them sufficiently to pass freely through the lace holes without a tag.

TWO BOXES ON ENDS OF POLE.

RESTING POLE FOR BURDENS ON TUE ZAMBESI.

Trunks and Boxes.

For ordinary travel the solid leather bullock trunks, of regulation size, will be found both convenient and durable. All strap guides, loops, and handles must be riveted as well as sewn to the body of the trunk. Spare keys should also be fitted to the locks. In countries where it is customary for baggage to be carried by porters through narrow bush paths, and where destructive insects are numerous, we recommend the use of sheet copper boxes, 16in. long, 12in. wide, and 12in. deep, made with copper wire strengthening rods, worked in the edges of the plates or sheets. Ring handles, also of copper, should be fitted to both sides and ends, as iron when wet would corrode the copper. These serve to pass straps, cords, or lashings through. In making these boxes great care should be taken to fit the joints and cover so as to render them rainproof. The insides should be tinned just as coppersmiths tin cooking pots. The above illustration will serve to show the manner in which one porter carries two of these cases, which, to be transported in this way, should not, with their contents, weigh over 20lb. each. If one box is carried, as shown in the annexed engraving, from 35lb. to 40lb. weight may be placed in it. Boxes for Cape waggon travelling should be about 3ft. long by 16in. wide and deep. They are best made of well-seasoned Memel deal, 1in. thick, dovetailed and angle plated. Such packing cases as are taken will require lining; thin sheet lead is convenient for this purpose, as it serves for bullet-making when the boxes are taken on shore.

Shooting Gear.

Bullets.

Rifles and guns.

To the traveller whose means of transport confine him to the possession of one gun, we say, without hesitation, purchase a plain, strong, muzzle-loading, double-barrelled smooth bore of 11 or 12 gauge. Length of barrel, 2ft. 6in., weight 8?lb. without the ramrod, a front action bar, side locks, and ramrod pipes large enough to carry a rod of extra large size and power. Two pairs of spare nipples, and one pair of fitted main springs, in addition to those in the locks. A bell-metal or iron spherical bullet mould must be selected with the greatest care, as it by no means follows that because the figure 12 or 11 is stamped on it, that, like a wadding punch, it is calculated for a gun of the same gauge. Our plan, when about to purchase a new mould, is to form, with beeswax, heated in warm water or before the fire, a ball, and to trim, mould, and finally to roll it on a polished table under the hand, until, when placed on a piece of thin, soft, greased kid, and gently pressed down, it fits the bore accurately; then, with this ball as a guide, we search the moulds until one is found just the size to contain it without undue pressure being used in entering the hardened wax ball. This mould we secure, caring nothing for the conventional numbers placed on it. The spherical leaden ball, when encased in kid, should fit the bore just tight enough to require one steady downward thrust of the rod to force it home. If it travels on without pressure, it is too loose; if, on the other hand, tapping with the rod is needed, it is too tight, and liable to welt or disfigure the barrel. We have seen many much injured, and rendered very unsafe, from this cause. If several guns can be taken, then it will be well to purchase one or more breech-loaders of No. 12 gauge. In the choice of rifles, our readers must be mainly guided by the character and size of the game they intend pursuing. A poly-groove muzzle-loader, No. 12 bore, 2ft. 4in. in the barrels, and of about 10lb. weight, will be found a generally useful and reliable gun. There are, without doubt, many advantages attendant on the use of breech-loading guns and rifles. There are also drawbacks, which, except under peculiar circumstances, more than outweigh them. That the breech-loading form of construction, varied as it is, is of less strength and durability than that of an equally well made muzzle-loader, few will be disposed to dispute. The hinge joints, levers, and slides, should they chance to become bent, loose, or, worse still, broken, would require repair by an experienced gunsmith; whilst, as will be seen as the work proceeds, nearly all the common accidents to which even the strongest and best made muzzle-loaders are liable in the bush, can, by the exercise of a little ingenuity, be readily made efficient weapons by their unskilled owners. Gunpowder, lead, and percussion caps, such as they are, can, when your own store is expended, destroyed, or lost, be readily procured even in very out of the way corners of the earth; whilst the cartridges calculated for breech-loaders could be only procured in towns or trading posts of importance, where the cost would, as a matter of necessity, be great, and their efficiency questionable. Strong flint muskets (old army regulation) will be found best calculated for the use of native servants. A bit of agate, common quartz, or iron pyrites, answers the purpose of a flint, should one be lost. Nevertheless, some breech-loaders so perfectly combine the qualities of simplicity of construction, excellence of shooting, and facility of re-loading, that we forbear to put too general a veto upon them, especially when, by inserting a metallic wad, they can be converted in case of need into muzzle-loaders. Terry and Calishers, Westley Richards, and others, are favourites in the Cape colony; and we carried for four years in tropical South Africa one by T. Wilson, of Birmingham: it was compact and simple in action, devoid of hinges and levers. We have loaded with facility while running from a wounded elephant, and turned to fire again within eighty yards. The cartridge was easily made with wads of the proper size and a bit of tissue paper saturated with common fat; each shot ejected the greased wad of the previous charge, cleaning the barrel as it went. It could, if necessary, have been used as a muzzle-loader, and is now, after 1600 rounds have been fired from it, in as good condition as could be desired. The long sword bayonet we never used, but, instead, cut down a smaller sword to the proportion of a bush knife, and, by a little smith's craft and patience, fitted it to be used as a bayonet if needed. A breech-loader has this advantage, that with a small bayonet a man, even in a sharp skirmish, is not defenceless while loading, for he has his point always before him ready for use should his enemy close. We have since had a spring locker let into the stock, to hold half a dozen cartridges and caps; so that, even when snatched up without the belt, the gun should not become useless after the first discharge.

Before quitting the subject, it may not be amiss to give a few hints on the purchase of second-hand guns; these are often to be obtained for considerably less than their original cost, and just as good as when perfectly new. There are many establishments in London, where second-hand fire-arms in considerable numbers are regularly kept to select from; amongst these may be mentioned Whistler in the Strand, Vaughan in the Strand, Hewett of Blackman-street, Borough, and Watson of 313, Holborn. After deciding on the description of gun you require, and ascertaining the cost, see that the maker's name is a good one, take the number of the gun, and either call, write, or telegraph as to identity and original price, which matters of information the manufacturer will immediately furnish. This is not an unnecessary caution, as, unless the would-be purchaser is experienced in style of finish, and quality of workmanship, he may possibly invest in an article sailing under false colours; and here let us most emphatically impress on the reader that at neither of the shops above referred to would he knowingly be allowed to be deceived. But that there are guns in the market with names on them which are forgeries few will deny, and it requires both the experience of the dealer, and the caution of the buyer, to guard against being taken in by them. Do not rashly reject a sound useful gun because it is made by a provincial Irish or Scotch maker, as there are many gunsmiths out of London who turn out guns equal in quality and shooting powers to any in the world. When examining a gun you are about to buy, try the locks by cocking and uncocking, see that the pitch suits your mode of shooting, draw the ramrod, lift the hammers to half-cock, drift out the bolt and reverse the barrels, when on looking underneath near the breech you will probably see the proof marks and the number of gauge at which the gun was proved; place the gun gauge in the muzzles and see that the two numbers correspond, as it occasionally happens that guns are proved at one number and bored out until they represent another-a most reprehensible practice, which militates greatly against the safety of the owner of the gun which has been thus tampered with. Do not, however, hastily cast aside a well-made Irish gun with a known maker's name engraved on it because there are no proof marks, as, for some strange reason or another, the law of proof does not appear to extend to Ireland; and we have seen many guns of surpassing excellence made in both Dublin and Cork unstamped. The reason for this anomalous state of affairs we never have succeeded in getting clearly explained; we therefore merely speak of matters as we have found them.

Testing firearms.

Before removing the locks, see that they are neatly and compactly fitted into the wood of the stock; see also that the timber of the stock in the bed of the barrels immediately in front of the false breech is sound; some makers lay in plates of metal at this joint, which is an excellent plan. On removing the bolt and taking off the locks, see that all the cavities into which the projections and springs fit have been cleanly and evenly cut out with the tool. See also that the triggers work freely and have back springs to them. See that the interiors of the locks are well fitted together, and if you can find the name of "Joseph Brazier, Ashes," engraved on the inside of the plate, you may discontinue your scrutiny so far as the lock department is concerned, as it is a guarantee for excellence of quality which we have always found beyond question. Have the breeches and nipples removed; see that both male and female screws are perfect; look carefully through the barrels, and see that the inner surfaces are clear, bright, and free from rust or honeycombing. Cast a general glance over the gun furniture to see that all is firm and sound. See that there are no shakes or cracks in the stock, and if there is no varnish on it so much the better. Whether the barrels are to be of Damascus or laminated steel, or twisted stubs, we must leave in great measure to the taste of the purchaser. Each kind has its advocates. We do not advise having guns without ramrods, as we have seen much inconvenience arise in wild countries from having the loading rod to carry and depend on. It is well to have one with a large powerful worm inside the driving top or end, but it should be regarded rather in the light of an auxiliary than an instrument to be depended on. It will also be advisable, before concluding your purchase, to test the shooting powers of the weapon selected. If a smooth bore, experiment on it first for accuracy of shooting with shot, in order to ascertain if the barrels are accurately fitted together. This is very easily done by trying a few shots from both barrels, at two or three different ranges, at a small object such as a visiting card. By fastening this to the centre of the target, and shooting steadily at it, you will at once ascertain if both the barrels perform their work satisfactorily, and do not shoot to the right or left. With such a gun as we have recommended, 3drs. of powder and 1?oz. of No. 5 or 6 shot will be found a fair average charge. Equal quantities by measure of powder and shot form a charge almost universal in its usefulness. The next test should be for pattern or regularity of distribution, at different distances, which may begin at twenty paces and extend to sixty, using the same charge. A large piece of sheet iron, painted over with a mixture of pipeclay or whitening and water, should, in the absence of one of Government pattern, be made use of. Form a round black space in the middle, and, as in the case of the former experiment, shoot steadily at it, at the different ranges indicated. It will then be seen whether the shot are equally and evenly distributed over a moderately large space of the metal. There are two modes of testing penetration usually had recourse to. The most common is to fire the gun, at different ranges, at a number of sheets of paper. Old books, with the covers removed, answer the purpose as well as anything. These, when firmly secured against the target, a door, or tree, are fired at with a fair average charge, in order to ascertain the number of leaves the shot has found its way through. To carry an experiment of this kind out satisfactorily, it will be well to test the intended purchase against some gun of known excellence, as no arbitrary rule can be laid down as to the number of sheets which should be penetrated, no two surfaces of paper being exactly alike in quality, substance, and mode of arrangement. Tin powder canisters are also used as a test of penetrating power. Some guns will riddle them from side to side, whilst others, with the same charge, and at the same distance, merely throw the shot through one thickness of the tin plate. Powder canisters are not always of the same substance; therefore, we recommend a competitive trial with them.

The accompanying table of results, which were some time since arrived at and communicated to the Field by an experienced correspondent, will serve to show what varied results follow the use of particular guns and canisters of more than ordinary strength.

"I was struck with the strength and sharpness of shooting of the 7?lb. 11-gauge gun at the trials, of which I sent you the report, and decided on trying the canisters again. The first was a very hard, strong canister of Curtis and Harvey's, nearly square, being 4?in. by 4?in. and 1?in. nearly through. I fired eight barrels, two or three pellets of each barrel going clean through both sides, and such as did not go through both sides deeply indenting the second side. I tried another of Curtis and Harvey's 6?in. by 3?in. by 1?in., with like results-No. 5 shot 40 yards (by tape), and the canisters standing loose on the top of a post. I then tried my heavy gun, 9lb. 11-gauge, barrels 5?lb., 31in. long. I have drawn out a table of charges and results. The patterns with No. 5 were very good-first-rate many of them-and the strongest; with the 3?drs. and 1?oz. very great, the other charge would not do. With No. 4 the strength is very great, but I cannot rely on the pattern. I then put up a Curtis and Harvey tin canister (apparently like the last in size and substance), 6?in. by 3?in. by 1?in., and let go my right barrel at 40 yards with No. 5; to my amazement, five pellets stuck in the first side, but none went through. I then examined it, and it was very clearly a tough and strong subject. My keeper tried the other barrel with the same results. He was, however, quite sure that my other gun would send No. 5 through both sides. I tried several shots the next day with the other gun at this same canister, but could not get through the first side; the shots stuck in, and so hard that a strong clasp knife would hardly extract them. I was astonished, I confess, for the shots which struck the stone gate-post were flattened as thin as the edge of a knife; and, standing about 5 yards wide of the mark, the strength seemed sufficient to go through anything. However, facts are facts; and the three canisters are now lying on the ground before me. I have since been experimenting with the light gun and No. 6; the day was not very favourable, being windy, but I did not like the patterns.

Dr. Oz. No. Yds. Right Barrel. Left Barrel. Light Gun 7?lb., barrels 4?lb. 30in.

3 1? No. 6 40 116 110 Very good. Very good.

110 107 Very good. Very good.

112 93 Good. Left went to the left.

60 46 41 Tolerable. Left low.

No. 5 ... 42 31 Good pattern, and very hard.

Targets 6ft. by 4?ft., with circle 30in. in diameter; shots on circle not counted.

"I do not like No. 6; it comes up hard, too-very hard. I stood behind the target while my keeper shot at it, both at 40 yards and 60 yards, so I could judge well; but the patterns had not the killing regularity of No. 5; a part was thick as dust shot, and another like No. 5, but without its broad splashes, though the pellets were all as flat as wafers at 60 yards. I would have backed the bird for ever. I cannot help thinking that, in windy weather, very little execution could be done at 40 yards with No. 6. I have since tried other charges-3drs. 1?oz., 3drs. 13?10oz., both Nos. 5 and 6; also 3?drs. 1?oz., but I do not find any charge beats 3drs. and 1?oz.

Dr. Oz. No. Yds. Right Barrel. Left Barrel. Heavy Gun.

3? 1? No. 5 40 65 66 Right good. Left excellent.

66 88 Right two holes or spaced. Left first rate.

50 46 39 Not good. Not good.

31 40 Moderate. Moderate. Want of strength, not the charge.

3? 1? No. 5 40 84 81 Right very good. Left first-rate.

80 81 Right good. Left excellent.

83 84 Right first-rate. Left first-rate.

50 42 50 Right excellent. Left excellent.

46 44 Right not regular. Left very good.

46 44 Right not regular. Left very good.

53 51 Right first-rate. Left first-rate. Very regular, very hard, very close.

3? 1? No. 4 40 47 52 Very good.

50 27 19 Not good at all.

Targets 2ft. square, iron, tape measurement; gun 9lb., without ramrod;barrels 5?lb. and 31in."

Rifle sights.

A rifle, before purchase, should also be carefully tested as to accuracy of shooting; this can be best done on some rifle range. For sporting purposes, accuracy of delivery and power of penetration at moderate distances are much more valuable qualities than length of range. Accuracy of shooting is best ascertained by firing steadily from increasing distances at an ordinary target centre, up to 200yds. A generally useful charge for spherical balls consists of the bullet-mouldful of the very best powder. Use a greased kid patch for the ball; see that it has no defects or faults in it; and never strike it with the driving end of the rod when it has once reached the surface of the powder in the barrel. Send the ball well home with a steady pressure from above, and then withdraw the rod. Should it be found that the balls are sent to the right of the object, in all probability it will be found on examination that either the hind sight is placed too far towards the right, or the fore sight too far in the opposite direction. So with rifles which shoot to the left. If the hind sight has been shifted in its slot, and driven too far to the left of the exact line, or the front sight in a direction towards the right, the balls will be found to assume an untrue flight; and the greater the distance they have to travel, the more marked will the error become. The handle of an old tooth brush, fashioned with a file into the form of an elongated wedge, will, with the aid of a mallet or hammer, serve to drift the slides into their proper position. This, when once found, should be noted by making a small but deep cut with the point of a penknife across both slide and barrel rib, so that if moved the two ends of the cut will not correspond. Gunmakers usually either cut a notch or punch in a piece of platinum, with the same view. Rifles will not unfrequently need re-sighting from accidents in wild countries, but this subject will be treated of at length hereafter. The penetration of rifle balls is best ascertained by firing them at a number of thin elm boards, placed one on the other like a pack of cards. The number of layers or boards penetrated is at once ascertained by taking off the planks one by one until the ball is reached.

Ammunition.

We are not unfrequently asked to advise as to the quantity of ammunition a single sportsman should take abroad in order to enjoy a fair amount of shooting. The duration of the proposed excursion, nature of game about to be followed, and the proclivities of the intending traveller, will all influence the bulk of the store he should provide himself with. Still, a hint or two may at any rate serve for a basis for him to regulate his purchases by. Supposing, then, that a No. 12 or 11 muzzle-loader, an 11 or 12 bore muzzle-loading rifle, and either a brace of double pistols or a revolver, are taken; 4lb. of best sporting powder, 2lb. of rifle ditto, 2000 best caps for guns, which should have nipples alike, and 250 pistol caps; two 28lb. bags of No. 6 shot, one bag No. 4, and one bag BB. Have sail-canvas bags made to go outside the ordinary shot bags, as these are sure to burst with rough travelling. Take six bags of ordinary mercurial gun wads, and six of extra thick felt ditto as powder wads. These can be split in two if you run short. Wads of this kind are invaluable, as they keep the gun clean, improve its power of shooting considerably, and are less liable to rise in the barrel than those of thin material. Get a stout elm box made; have it lined with sheet lead; have a division of stout plank made in the middle, so that the shot may rest at one end and the powder, wads, and caps at the other. Pack in every crevice with tow, as that will come handy for cleaning purposes, solder down your lead cover, and then screw on your elm box-lid. A stout pair of elm cleets or bars should be secured to both bottom and top of the box. They not only strengthen it, but prevent the planking from coming in contact with the earth or wet decks. They also serve to prevent ropes used in slinging or fastening the case in its various haulings up and lowerings down from slipping. Cleets of this kind are useful appendages to all wooden boxes used by travellers.

Pistols.

The most efficient and powerful pistol we have used is the holster revolver of Colonel Colt, but its weight (4lb. 2oz.) is far too great to admit of its being generally carried except on horseback. There are not so many objections to the use of breech-loading revolvers and pistols as there are to guns and rifles made on that plan. In the first place, they are less liable to breakage or derangement; and in the next, from the very limited number of cartridges which would be actually fired, a sufficient number may be very easily taken to last through a long campaign or expedition. It is an immense advantage being able to instantly load or unload the chamber without discharging it. It is customary with many travellers, ourselves amongst the number, to fire the revolver off every Saturday to clean, re-load, and re-cap them, thereby sacrificing six charges, six caps, and some little labour. Notwithstanding all the ingenuity which has of late been devoted to the production of breech-loading revolvers, we have not seen one which we can recommend without reservation-the great fault in every case being smallness of bore. Long range is, as a rule, not required in a pistol, but that which is required is the power of inflicting a severe shock to the system at comparatively close quarters. Numerous cases might be cited when, after lodging two or even three of the tiny pellets fired from small revolvers in the body of an enemy, the enemy has had decidedly the best of it, and coolly finished off the owner of the mechanical popgun with some old-world weapon of greater power. Until a large-bored and handy breech-loading revolver is produced, we recommend for use on horseback, either double-barelled smooth-bore Lefaucheux-pattern pistols with 7?in. barrels and 14 bore, or muzzle-loaders of the same size and gauge, with bar side locks and swivel ramrods. The over and under double pistol is an excellent weapon, and is carried by many soldiers and travellers of great experience; but for our part, we prefer the barrels mounted side by side, precisely as they are in a double gun. To carry in the belt for use on foot, the Tranter breech-loader is perhaps as good as any, although as a rule the trigger pull is too heavy; but this is an evil which admits of correction.

Powder flasks, barrel rods, &c.

Take three Sykes powder-flasks, one to hold a pound and the others of medium size; have them of tinned copper stitched over with saddle pig-skin. We prefer for carrying shot a double shot-belt with patent side springs to any of the lever cut-off contrivances; it is a very old-fashioned plan we know, but a very effective and useful one for all that. Two sizes of shot can be carried in it; it can be worn much more comfortably than a pouch, which is always getting in the way, and there is no loss of shot from chance blows on the lever: a still greater advantage lays in your being able to see that which goes into your gun. If only one size shot can be taken, select No. 6 for general use; but No. 8, No. 4, and Bristol B. should be added if practicable. Gunpowder of excellent quality is now to be obtained of all the first-class makers. For percussion caps, thick felt gun-wads, and ordinary mercurial ditto, go to either Joyce or Ely. The wire cartridges of the latter maker are invaluable if they can be carried: we have done wonders with them. When having your shooting gear put in order, have two well-seasoned deal rods made, so that they may fit tightly into the barrels of the gun when covered with two layers of flannel, which must be firmly stitched on; the sticks are cut exactly the length of the barrels, and connected at the muzzle ends by a short piece of strong tape; this serves to draw them out by. Before placing the sticks in the barrels for final packing up, rub them over with mercurial ointment, as should be done to both the outsides of the barrels and the gun furniture; there is little fear of rust attacking your firearms when treated in this way.

A brass mould for casting buck shot will be found very useful. One we have found of infinite service is thus made: Two long narrow cheeks of brass are fitted at one end with a hinge, each cheek has the halves of fifteen shot sockets at each edge, making, when the two halves are closed, thirty perfect spherical moulds for shot. A groove and row of inlets run along each edge, and two movable steel plates cut off the necks of the shot when cool. There are two handles, and the whole affair is not unlike a long narrow pair of nutcrackers. The shot thus cast are about the size of garden peas, and an ounce of them, with 3?drs. of powder behind it from a No. 11 gun, forms a charge which will be found most formidable if used at moderately close quarters. When defending a camp or waggon fort against the attacks of savages nothing is equal to it.

Stationery and Artist's Materials.

It is to be supposed that most persons visiting little-known regions will at least keep a diary for private gratification, if not for public use; and now that drawing from nature is so essential a branch of education, they will most likely also wish to sketch such objects or scenes as may be most interesting. Some who aspire to more exactitude of detail than an artist can hope for in a hasty sketch may wish to practise photography; and in this beautiful art the greatest possible facilities are offered to those who practise it. We have lately seen in London many most beautiful pictures taken by Dr. Kirk on the Zambesi with a small and inexpensive camera, carried as a mere supplement to his private equipment; but unless the traveller possesses, as Kirk did, chemical knowledge enough to enable him to contend successfully against the various contingencies of changing climate, impurity or scarcity of water, and innumerable other new and unexpected difficulties, we are inclined to think that the pencil, guided with what artistic skill the individual may be able to command, will afford, if not the best, at least the most certainly available results; and, without undervaluing photography, we may in this preliminary chapter notice principally the appliances which will enable a man to keep his journal and illustrate it with sketches of interesting scenes or objects.

The journal.

First, then, as to the journal. Of course, for purposes of correspondence, a traveller will take care to supply himself with some one of the substantial and economical portable desks in which pens, ink, note-paper, and envelopes are always at hand to enable him to write a creditable letter from almost any part of the world. But the journal or diary is another matter; its value consists chiefly in its being what its name indicates-a diary or diurnal record. It must be written while the events described are fresh on the memory, or there is neither life nor spirit in it. If the journal of to-day is put off, the events of to-morrow will confuse and dim the impressions that ought in all their pristine vigour to have been committed to paper; procrastination is the thief of time, and we may well say that it will rob the journal of the traveller of all that freshness and vivacity which alone can make it interesting.

The question, then, is, how shall he carry with him material so that each night, by the blazing camp-fire, the scantily-fed oil lamp, or the last half hour of the quickly waning twilight, he may record his impressions of the events of the day? We will suppose that the chase has occupied him; or he has been engaged, as we have, in desultory warfare in Kaffirland or India; or even, it may be, passing through a peaceful country, with no other than the common difficulties of exploration and objects of interest in botany, zoology, or any of the innumerable departments of science crowding on him at every hour. He will, perhaps, wish to send home one or more copies of his diary as correspondence, and it is absolutely necessary that he himself should retain a perfect copy. Ink he cannot at all times carry, nor could he use it, for the drying up of the fluid, the clogging and corroding of his pens, would be insuperable difficulties; and, beside this, as his time is not sufficient for him to write in detail, even for the first time, all that he wishes, how shall he obtain a copy? In answer we will simply state the plan we have successfully adopted. Pen and ink we discarded altogether, and trusted simply to the powers of a good HH. pencil and a supply of thin white foolscap interleaved with semi-carbonic paper, as shown in the illustration here given. By this arrangement we were able at any time to record all needful remarks or observations in duplicate, and could have extended this if necessary to five copies, while all the labour of re-writing was saved and all chance of error obviated by this simple process.

Artist's materials.

With regard to artist's materials, until we have an opportunity of going farther into detail, perhaps all that need be said is that the traveller, knowing his own capabilities and requirements, should supply himself with material from some respectable colourman-Reeves, Winsor and Newton, or others-with such materials as he requires. To one who has real facility in sketching, the black-lead pencil and a few quires of sketching cartridge paper will be the means of affording illustrations which, compared with the simple means employed, may be accounted marvellous; but if he has skill in colouring and will add to this a water-colour box, with tubes, or moist colours in porcelain pans, in assortments (always kept by the best colourmen), with a few sable or other pencils, and brushes of the best quality (for there is really no saving in buying cheap goods), he may obtain results that will in after years more than repay the cost and labour he has expended upon them.

Details of our own outfit and expenditure will hereafter be given; and we may now briefly mention that, for pure and careful painting, white paper-say Whatman's-is indispensable; but where strict accuracy of tint is not essential, it is very soothing to the eye, especially under the fervid rays of an almost vertical sun, to have the paper slightly tinted with pearl, warm grey, light drab, or neutral colours, which, if well chosen, will enable the artist to make very effective drawings in sepia, or colours heightened with Chinese white.

For persons wishing to employ their leisure in pleasing mementoes of the scenes they visit, perhaps the following brief list-amplified, should they desire it-will afford sufficient guidance; and they will also do well to choose one or more of the shilling handbooks published by Rowney and Co., or Winsor and Newton.

A sketching portfolio, with folding tin frame to confine the paper while in use, and pocket for spare paper-quarto size. Do not take sketching blocks where they have to stand rough usage.

One of folio size, if desired.

A good strong havresac of canvas, with leather slings for each folio. Stout canvas is almost waterproof. This should have pockets for colour box, water bottle, pencils, and penknife.

Half quire Whatman's drawing paper (white). Some of it should be cut to the size of the folio.

Half quire sketching cartridge for less finished work.

Half quire tinted drawing paper (pearl, light drab, cool and warm greys).

A proportion of all these papers should be cut to the size of the sketch book when purchased; but a few sheets should be kept whole, as a larger drawing may be required.

Two dozen drawing pencils-8 HH., 12 H., and 4 HB. In practice, it will be found HB. is black enough, and it should be used sparingly, as, unless a drawing is fixed immediately, the deep shades are very apt to smear when the backs of other sketches are packed against them.

Two single bladed penknives.

Very compact sketching boxes with assorted colours in cakes, in porcelain pans, or in collapsible tubes, are provided; and the amateur can hardly do better than select one of these with any number of colours from two to twenty-four.

We prefer to use the collapsible tubes, as from them any amount of colour may be placed upon the palette ready for use, without the trouble of grinding from the cake or washing up from the moist pan. Another advantage is that the colour remaining in the tube cannot be spoiled by the admixture of any other-the tubes might be carried loose in the pocket of a white waistcoat without fear of spoiling it. There are, however, a few which do not keep well, as, from their weight, they separate from the medium they are mixed with and become hard. Some of these are seldom used; but, where they are necessary, we should advise that they be taken in cakes.

On tinted paper very nice effective sketches may be made with one tube of sepia and a cake of Chinese white. With these we should advise three brown sable pencils in flat German silver ferrules-Nos. 1, 3, and 6. With the addition to these of the three primitive colours-red, blue, and yellow-a considerable range of subjects may be painted; indeed could we obtain these in perfect purity, we should require no other. But, as this is impossible, we subjoin a list of colours, placing first in order those that we have found most useful (Chinese white and sepia have been already mentioned):-

Indian yellow,

Carmine,

French blue,

Yellow ochre,

Light red,

Prussian blue,

Gamboge,

Rose madder (perhaps in cake),

Cobalt,

Raw sienna (cake),

urnt sienna,

Indigo,

Yellow lake,

Mars orange,

Payne's grey,

Vermilion (cake),

Vandyke brown,

Emerald green,

Scarlet lake (cake),

Crimson lake,

Purple lake,

Cadmium yellow (cake),

Brown madder (cake),

Purple madder (cake).

With these, the whole set from 1 to 6 of the sables in flat albata will be needed, and we advise two each of 1, 2, and 3, as well as one or two large swans' quills for washing in the sky or flat tints. A tripod sketching stool folding to the size of a special's staff would be useful, but the rivet should be strong and well clinched. Let the watercolour box have divisions on the edge of the palette for every colour it contains. If you take an easel, do not trust an india-rubber collar joint; it will not stand tropical heat; let the joint be brass. The tripod easel, folding up like a single rod, is most portable. We have in this said nothing of oil colours; amateurs will hardly need them in a wild country; but when we treat more at length on this subject our own equipment will be given.

Scientific Instruments.

Instruments for mapping the route.

If the traveller aims at exploring and approximately mapping the country he passes through, astronomical instruments are indispensable, and of these none are more useful than the compass; the sextant, with artificial horizon; the note book, conveniently ruled, for recording observations; and the protractor, the scale, and the dividers, for laying them down upon the map. If merely a pleasure excursion in a sufficiently known country is contemplated, a pocket compass will be all that is needed; and even that is dispensed with by hunters and traders, who push farther every year into the wilderness without fear of either mistaking their way or being unable to return upon their own tracks.

A great amount of detail may be filled in with the following simple outfit:-A pocket compass, not only showing the points as in common use, but graduated on the outer circle with degrees, reading uninterruptedly from zero all round to 360: this will give the direction of the road, the bearings of any two objects, and the angle between them. A waistcoat-pocket ivory 6in. folding rule: this will serve the purpose both of scale and protractor; the eighths of an inch may be conveniently taken to represent miles, and by laying the rule upon the compass, so that its joint coincides with the centre on which the needle turns, and opening the legs to the degrees marked upon the circumference, the required angle may be approximately transferred to the note book. For observing latitudes a sextant is indispensable. If great accuracy is not required, a pocket or box sextant of from three to four inches diameter, and reading to half miles, will answer; but for more precision one of at least 8in. radius should be taken, framed entirely of metal, as wood will shrink and warp; it should read to 15 or even to 10 seconds, or sixtieths of a mile. There are many forms of artificial horizon, but of these the mercurial is the best, and, in fact, the only one we can confidently recommend. The trough should not be less than five inches long by three broad, and we prefer an oval form, with a convenient spout for pouring off the quicksilver when done with. A glass roof is used to protect the surface of the mercury, should there be any wind, and this may be made to fold into a very small compass, if desired. Six, or at least four, pounds of mercury should be provided; and this should be kept in an iron bottle, with screwed stopper and cover, serving as a funnel, which should be further protected by a piece of washleather tied over it. We have used as a substitute a common stoneware ink bottle, with leather securely tied over the cork, but wooden bottles are sure to split and leak when taken to hot countries.

With this equipment, a superior compass, for the more accurate determination of bearings, will be required. A prismatic compass is very useful, but we have used, with great convenience and accuracy, a flat one with a card of three inches diameter, divested of everything but the slit and hair line sights, which are used just as those of a rifle are, and protected only by a stout glass, which saved the trouble of removing and replacing the cover. A small pouch on the waist belt was appropriated exclusively to this. The note book may be of good non-metallic writing-paper, such as is in common use. This may be written on very conveniently with a H. or HH. drawing pencil, which is practically indelible. It would be convenient to have lines ruled along the side of the page for the courses and time or estimated distance; ￡. s. d. columns will do very well for this. For mapping, paper may be purchased ruled with squares of almost any desired size; the inches are marked with strong lines, and the subdivisions, eights or tenths, with fainter. This should be cut to fit one of the quarto sketching folios, with folding frame to confine the sheet in use, and pocket for spare paper as commonly used by artists. The instruments absolutely necessary for plotting the result are a semicircular, or, still better, a circular protractor, marked like the compass with degrees from 0 to 360, and made of brass, or preferably of some transparent material. A 6in. scale, with the usual divisions, and a good pair of compasses or dividers, with points as fine as possible, but somewhat obtuse, to prevent the possibility of their piercing the paper and breaking off in it. For heights of mountains, the simplest and most reliable instrument is the hypsometrical or boiling-point apparatus, which, though not so accurate as the mountain barometer, is sufficiently so for ordinary purposes, and has this great merit-it cannot easily be put out of order. The rainfall, should the country be blessed with any, may be measured by a Casella rain gauge, which we have also used very successfully on a pinch as a funnel for drawing off rum from a barrel. Thermometers reading up to boiling point ought to be carried, and in addition to these the traveller may provide himself with a self-registering maximum and minimum, and a wet and dry bulb thermometer.

One of the greatest difficulties that an observer working on shore with the artificial horizon can meet with is-that the actual angle to be observed is doubled by reflection in the quicksilver. Few sextants read higher than 120° or 130°, consequently, when the sun is 70° high, it is beyond the reach of ordinary instruments. To meet this, Captain C. George, R.N., of the Royal Geographical Society, has invented a very beautiful little instrument, in the form of a double box sextant, and the object of which is either to take two angles at one observation, by referring two distant objects to a common centre, and completing at once a perfect triangle, or, by the increased power of the instrument, to take any required angle that may be too great for those in ordinary use. The instrument is best described as being a special arrangement of two sextants placed one over the other. Each sextant is complete in all its essential details, and, if so required, can be detached and separately used.

The "Improved Double Sextant" is capable of being applied to the following uses:-

(1.) To the measurement of angles of nearly double the arc which can be measured by the ordinary sextant.

(2.) To the simultaneous measurement of two angles.

(3.) To laying out a direct line between any two objects, thus acting as a substitute for a Raper's instrument.

(4.) To laying out curves for railways, harbour works, &c., &c.

(5.) It can be used as an optical square.

(6.) It can be used as a dip-sector.

(7.) It can be used on shipboard to measure the supplement of the meridian altitude, in cases where the land intervenes between the observer and the direct meridional horizon.

(8.) It can be used on shore with the artificial horizon in obtaining altitudes of objects near the zenith.

(9.) It is also available as two distinct sextants, one of which can be used in case of the other being damaged, or one can be used by an assistant, and the other retained by the observer.

A pocket compass is now made in which the northern half is black with white points, and the southern white with black points; the advantage of which by night or twilight is obvious. We prefer that the card should travel with the magnet, as all the points then come naturally into position, and the excessive liveliness of the needle which renders a rapid observation so difficult is obviated. We have carried a pocket compass with a swivel ring, so that it could be worn on the left thumb, while we held the note book and kept the right hand free for writing or guiding the horse. It is easier to make pencil notes on horseback than in a waggon. For the proper registration of the time and distance travelled, a good well-going hunting watch is necessary; and if it has a black dial and white figures so much the better. This will serve sufficiently well for taking time in the observation of lunar distances. Unless under very exceptional circumstances it would be useless for an explorer to trouble himself with a chronometer. A good binocular field glass for day and night will be found useful.

PORTABLE OBSERVATORY.

TRIANGULAR COMPASSES.

SLIDING BEAM COMPASSES.

Portable observatory.

Measurement of distances.

We give a sketch of a very convenient arrangement made for us by Mr. Casella, in which the roof of the artificial horizon, slung with its point downward in a leather case, with pieces of tin let in to protect the glass from injury, was filled up with a block of light cedar, with hollows cut in it for the reception of the pocket sextant, iron-stoppered bottle of mercury and funnel cap, prismatic compass, note book with tables of declination cut from Hannay and Dietrichsen's Almanac pasted in it, pencil, skin of chamois leather, and over all the horizon trough. Lieutenant Skead, R.N., who accompanied the expedition to the Zambesi, frequently used it, and called it "a portable observatory." If the traveller intends to be long absent, he should supply himself with the Nautical Almanac for three years in advance, as well as with Norie's or Raper's Epitome, or Kerigan's Navigation. In addition to the instruments we have described, triangular compasses are very useful for taking the exact relative position of three points, and sliding beam compasses for long distances. Proportional compasses are also very useful in plotting the result of observations; we were accustomed to pin down half a dozen sheets over each other on the drawing board, and with a fine needle point prick the course through the whole of them; then by underlaying them with semi-carbonic paper, and writing the names on the upper sheet with a HHH. pencil, three or even more copies at a time might be obtained, the number, of course, depending much on the thinness of the paper we worked on. (See accompanying illustration.) Bear in mind that what an explorer wants is the means of approximately laying down his course and distance travelled, and his latitude precisely; the sextant and artificial horizon will do the last within a mile. The compass will give the course very nearly if he walks or rides; no instrument can be perfectly depended on. A pedometer will do for short distances, but when he becomes weary it counts his feeble steps just as it did his vigorous strides at the beginning, and thus shows more than the truth. If wheel carriages can be used, take a trochiameter, and contrive if possible to have the wheel on which it is fixed exactly five yards in circumference; it saves no end of trouble if there are no odd half inches to calculate. For mapping, do not take a case of instruments unless they are really good; have rather a few good ones wrapped in a chamois skin, a small ivory rule on which the eighths of an inch serve for miles, a pair of good dividing compasses, a good circular protractor transparent marked, from 0 to 360, a small parallel rule, HHH. pencils, a cake of blue for rivers, and carmine for roads, with a couple of sable pencils and a fine incorrodible metallic pen, will enable you to make a very complete and reliable map.

In the map room of the Royal Geographical Society a small selection of practical works is kept, a list of which, by the courtesy of Captain C. George, we are enabled to insert here. It is as follows:-

The Traveller's Library.

Astronomy.

Outlines of Astronomy. Sir J. Herschel, Bart. (Longman and Co. 1858.) 11s.

Astronomy and General Physics. W. Whewell. (W. Pickering. 1857.) 4s.

Illustrated London Astronomy. J. R. Hind. (Ingram and Co. 1853.) 1s. 6d.

Handbook-Descriptive and Practical Astronomy. G. F. Chambers. (J. Murray. 1861.) 10s.

Elements of Plane Astronomy. J. Brinkley, D.D. (Hodges and Smith. 1845.) 6s.

Orbs of Heaven; Planetary and Stellar Worlds. O. M. Mitchell. (N. Cooke. 1856.) 2s. 3d.

Navigation.

Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Rev. J. Inman. (Rivingtons. 1862.) 6s. 3d.

Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation. (J. W. Norie. 1864.) 14s. [N.B. The latest edition should be asked for.]

Lunar Time Tables. J. Gordon. (Imray. 1853.) 7s.

Handbook for the Stars. H. W. Jeans. (Levey, Robson, and Co. 1848.) 3s. 6d.

Mathematics, Trigonometry, and Spherics.

Manual of Mathematical Tables. Galbraith and Houghton. (Longman and Co. 1860.) 2s.

Mathematical Tracts. G. B. Airy. (J. W. Parker. 1842.) 9s. 6d.

Treatise on Practical Mensuration. A. Nesbit. (Longman and Co. 1864.) 5s. 4d.

Practical Introduction to Spherics and Nautical Astronomy. P. Kelly, LL.D. (Baldwin and Co. 1822.) 7s.

Treatise on Trigonometry. G. B. Airy. (Griffin and Co. 1855.) 2s. 3d.

For Travellers.

What to Observe; or, Travelling Remembrancer. Col. Jackson. Revised by Dr. Norton Shaw. (Houlston and Wright. 1861.) 9s. 6d.

Geodesy and Surveying, Military, Nautical, and Land Surveying.

Treatise on Military Surveying. Lieut. Col. Jackson. (Allen and Co. 1860.) 12s.

Outline of Method of conducting a Trigonometrical Survey. Col. Frome. (Weale. 1862.) 10s. 6d.

Practical Geodesy. J. W. Williams. (Parker and Son. 1835.) 7s. 6d.

Trigonometrical Surveying, Levelling, and Engineering. W. Galbraith. (Blackwood and Son. 1842.) 6s. 9d.

Engineering Field Notes on Parish and Railway Surveying and Levelling. H. J. Castle. (Simpkin and Co. 1847.) 8s.

Practice of Engineering Field Work. W. D. Haskoll. (Atchley and Co. 1858.) 17s. 6d.

Treatise on Nautical Surveyings. Com. Belcher. (Richardson. 1835.) 12s.

Weights and Measures.

Weights and Measures of All Nations. W. Woolhouse. (Virtue Bros. 1863.) 1s. 6d.

Foreign Measures and their English Values. R. C. Carrington. (Potter. 1864.)

Construction of Maps.

Manual of Map-making. A. Jamieson. (Fullarton. 1846.) 2s.

Manual of Topographical Drawing. Lieut. R. Smith. (J. Wiley. 1854.) 5s.

Projection of the Sphere.

Projection and Calculation of the Sphere. S. M. Saxby. (Longman and Co. 1861.) 4s. 3d.

Use of Instruments.

Treatise on Principal Mathematical and Drawing Instruments. F. Williams. (Weale. 1857.) 3s. 2d.

The Sextant and its Applications. Simms. (Troughton and Simms. 1858.) 4s. 6d.

Treatise on Mathematical Instruments. J. Heather. (Virtue Bros. 1863.) 1s.

Geography.

Geography Generalised. R. Sullivan. (Longman and Co. 1863.) 2s.

In addition to these, every one ought to possess the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry, which is a series of papers written for the direction of explorers by men of the highest standing in various sciences; and no better general work can be recommended.

Horse Equipment.

Saddles.

Bridle.

NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION SADDLE EQUIPMENT.

NAMAQUA GUN BUCKET.

A good roomy hunting saddle, turned out as only an experienced English maker can, or, at any rate, so far as our experience has gone, ever does, we look on as the very perfection of that on which a horseman should sit; and we strongly advise every one leaving England for any country in which he has to ride, to provide himself with at least one. The various saddles used abroad will be described farther on. It will be requisite to have a number of "Ds" fastened on in the most convenient situations for attaching by straps the various matters which it is at times requisite to carry. Two soft leather holsters should be fitted to the front, and a wallet (see engraving), made to rest behind the off saddle flap and thigh of the rider, suspended by straps from Ds sewn firmly on for that purpose. At the rear of the saddle should also be attached a double row of Ds for the purpose of securing a sort of leather cover or envelope (see engraving), within which, when on the march, the head and heel ropes, with their pins, are secured. The mode of using these, as well as "knee halters," &c., will be described when treating on that subject. Two "numdahs," or saddle cloths, should accompany the saddle. The best we have seen of late are composed of a thick species of felt; but, during the most rapid and fatiguing forced marches through Central India, at the time of the mutiny, we used two of quilted cotton of native manufacture, which were put on alternately, one getting dry whilst the other was becoming saturated with perspiration from the horse, and so, by a constant change of these, avoiding one of the worst misfortunes that can befall the horse of the traveller through a wild country, viz., "a sore back." The skin of the klip springer, prepared with the hair on, forms an admirable numdah. Saddles are greatly protected during rough travel, and their durability much increased, by having cases made for them of soft "russet" leather, or that which is infinitely better, when it can be obtained, "saumber skin." We have had covers for all our saddles made of it, to protect the pig skin from the tremendous thorns of tropical forests, as well as the numerous other sources of injury to which saddles are liable. The stirrup-iron should be of large size, so as to admit of the free passage in and out of a thick boot with some mud or clay about it. Two or three pairs of substantial hunting spurs, with wide straps, will be found the most reliable kind of "persuader." The most useful bridle we ever had was of the "shifting bead collar pattern," so constructed that, by unbuckling a pair of side straps, both bits, with the reins attached, came off, leaving a strong head collar, with a chin strap, on which was an iron ring for a coil of rope to be suspended from, as shown in the illustration on page 37. Numerous opinions exist touching "bits," and much diversity of opinion must remain after all the arguments which have from time to time been expended on the subject; as the temperaments of horses and men vary, and as the peculiar purposes to which the horse, in the number of phases or conditions in which he is called on to minister to the wants and pleasures of his master, are changed, so will some modification of the means used for his control and direction be required. Pall-mall is one place and the forest another; and it by no means follows, because the equipment one has used with English hunters in an English hunting-field has been found all that could be desired, that native bred or colonial horses, ridden in pursuit of game, require no other. We do not think it would be profitable to the reader to enter here on a description of the bits used by various nations and tribes. We advise as nearly as possible adhering in this, as well as in many other customs, to the mode adopted by the particular race or nation amongst whom the traveller may chance to sojourn. Still, we recommend him to take out from England (besides the bit fitted on the head collar bridle, which may be a plain strong snaffle) two "segundras" of medium power. Have no more buckles in either heads or reins than are absolutely needed. Nothing tends to weaken a bridle so much, during the exposure consequent on an outdoor life, as the rusting out of buckles and the breaking or pulling through of their tongues-both sources of endless trouble and annoyance.

Pack saddles.

For simple and efficient equipment both for pack and saddle horses we do not know a better model than that adopted by Augustus C. Gregory, Commander of the North Australian Expedition, and now Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society, with whom we had the honour of serving from 1855 to 1857. The pack saddles, elaborately constructed in England, which we took out to him were at once condemned for two reasons; first, that they were unnecessarily heavy, and next that the points of suspension for the load were so high that the least swaying of the saddle would severely wring the horse's back. The large flaps were saved as a reserve of useful leather for emergencies, and the thick felt saddle cloths were gladly appropriated to their proper use; but the complicated arrangement of wood and iron, combining the undesirable qualities of weakness, weight, and inconvenience, was left in store to await the sale of surplus equipment on our return.

NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION PACKHORSE EQUIPMENT.

The pack saddle, made under the direction of Mr. Gregory, consisted simply of two boards of Australian cedar, about twenty inches long by seven broad, inclined at such an angle as to sit fairly on the horse's ribs, and at such a distance from each other that the spine should remain uninjured between them. These were connected by two stout bows of iron, 1?in. broad by ?in. thick, arching well clear of the horse's back, and having on each side hooks firmly riveted into them for the suspension of the bags in which our provisions, &c., were stowed. The crupper was buckled round the aftermost bow, and the straps for the attachment of the breasting, breeching, and girths were screwed on the outside of the cedar planks. We hope the illustration on the next page is sufficiently clear to indicate the position of these without further description; it will be seen that the girths cross each other as they pass under the belly.

A pair of pads, sufficiently large to prevent not only the saddle but also the packs chafing the horse, were attached to the boards by thongs passing through holes bored in either end, so that upon occasion we could easily remove them to re-arrange the stuffing, and tie them again in their places. One of the thick felted saddle cloths before mentioned was invaluable as an additional protection. The form of the bags will also be readily understood by a glance at the frontispiece. They were of stout canvas, as wide as one breadth of the material, and the ends were formed by a pear-shaped piece let in, and strongly roped round the seams; the loops at the upper part were bound with leather, and iron cringles or grummets were let in, by which to hang them on the hooks. No other fastening was used, so that if a horse fell in the rugged mountain paths, or in fording a rough and swollen torrent, it was an advantage to him to shake off his bags at once, while we were generally able to fish them up again before even such perishable stores as sugar could be reached by water, through the pack and double bags of canvas in which we kept them. Nothing whatever was allowed to be fastened to the bows above the suspension hooks; indeed there was a general order that the horse should carry nothing that was not contained in the side bags. The smaller bags for flour, sugar, and other stores, were also the length of one breadth of canvas. One end was formed by a circular piece of canvas about eight inches in diameter, and the other was left to be closed when they were filled. The inner bag was of plain canvas, and this was covered by another that had been well saturated with boiled linseed oil; these held about fifty pounds of flour, &c., and in each flour bag two ?lb. tins of gunpowder were kept perfectly secure from fire or water; we generally ate the flour as fast as we wanted the powder. Each pair of side bags was numbered, and carefully balanced one against the other, the stowage of each being from seventy to seventy-five pounds, so that the total load of the horse should not much exceed 160lb.

All the horses were furnished with a stout headstall and halter, which may be readily understood from the above engraving, and to which, when requisite, the bit and bridle could be buckled by short straps attached to the ring for that purpose.

Our riding saddles were provided with stout Ds, the straps of which were not stitched to the leather, but either firmly screwed into the wood, or passed round the frame of the saddle. Three of these in front served to receive the straps for buckling on "the swag," or a couple of stout red or blue blankets, which, with the extra shirt and trowsers serving as a pillow, formed our sole bedding. This was formed into a roll a little more than 3ft. long, and 6in. diameter, and carefully adjusted so as to arch well clear of the horse's withers. In front of the saddle bar, on the off side, was a stout ring, through which passed the slings of the gun bucket, which was made quite roomy enough to allow a double barrel to be withdrawn or again inserted without trouble, and was kept from collapsing by a ring of iron stitched into its upper edge; and the tedious process of unbuckling the strap usually passed round and round the grip of the gun stock was obviated by the very simple spring and swivel catch shown in the sketch.

It may be mentioned that we found the spring bar a very convenient arrangement, and only once we lost a stirrup leather when a rider had dismounted to allow his horse to descend more easily a difficult hill; but for such contingencies spare stirrups, &c., had been provided by the commander. Two Ds on either side supported such saddle pouches as were required; we preferred the nearly square form shown in the sketch of saddle on page 36, as being more roomy, containing in one the quarto sketch book actually in use, and in the other, a store of paper, &c., for further supply. Small loops, the attachment of which is just indicated on the inside of one of these bags, led forward for the girth to pass through and keep the pouches from flapping.

Some of us carried a valise, such as is separately represented, and others would make a roll of spare clothing; but it was imperative on all that nothing whatever should be allowed to rest on the horse's spine, but should be padded or otherwise arranged so as to pass clear over it. The hobbles were formed of a band of stout leather, double the required width, turned up and stitched so as to form a flat edge and a round one. In use, the sewn edge was always uppermost, so that the fetlock might not be chafed. They were connected by a short chain, having a swivel in the centre, and a double hook at each end, the hooks having holes pierced in their extremities for the reception of thongs, by which one end of each hobble was moused or secured from falling off. The hobbles were carried on the off side of the saddle, behind the pouches; and were not unfrequently balanced by the pannikin and tin quart, so essential to an Australian, that Henry, our commander's brother, declared his conviction that no one could become a successful traveller till he reduced his equipment to a clasp knife and a quart pot. Bells were hung to the headstalls of the horses most apt to stray, but thongs were fastened to the clappers, that they might be tied up during the day's march.

Our personal equipment consisted of a brown leather waist-belt, with snake fastening, carrying a small ammunition pouch, a revolver, and a compass; the naturalist, geologist, botanist, or artist adding to this such instruments as they required. Some few of us favoured braces, but with the majority they were at a discount. A cabbage-tree hat, or one of soft felt, a striped cotton shirt for fine weather, serge for wet, moleskin trowsers, light woollen socks, and ankle boots, completing our general costume.

Some hundred fathoms of small rope formed an essential portion of our equipment, the use of which will be best understood on reference to the frontispiece (which illustrates an expedient strictly within the range of actual travel, and is here introduced chiefly to show the form of pack-saddle bag which we found convenient, and can, therefore, recommend to intending explorers). This shift will hereafter be more fully described when we have to treat of those which must be improvised by every traveller on such emergencies.

NAMAQUA, WITH GUN, ON RIDING OX.

Gun slings.

An excellent method of carrying the gun on horse or ox back we have seen in common use among the semi-civilised Hottentots of Namaqua land; it consists simply of a bag or bucket of tolerably stout leather, large enough to contain the stock of the gun butt downward, nearly as far as the lock; it can be fastened to the saddle in exactly the same manner as that in use among us, or it can be fastened to the saddle bar on the near side and thrown over to the off. It is generally made of the softened but untanned leather of the country, and fastened by a thong and noose where we should, for more convenience and neatness, use a buckle. Its merits are that the gun lies easily before the thigh, pointing upward behind the right arm, so that an accidental discharge, if such a thing were possible, could hurt no one; it is easily removed by shifting the arm within and lifting it from the bag without the trouble of casting off any secondary fastening; and above all, it is impossible that even in the roughest riding the charge could be jerked forward in the barrel to the imminent danger of bursting it, as we ourselves have witnessed at the first discharge, where the gun has been carried muzzle downwards. The illustration below shows another very convenient form of gun sling, which we have found to answer admirably. When in use, the muzzles of the gun are above the left shoulder, and the stock behind the right thigh. By bringing the right hand back the toggle securing the loop round the grip is instantly released, when the gun drops into the right hand, releasing itself from the ring by its own weight, and is ready for instant use.

GUN SLING.

Cutlery.

Knives.

Tools.

Do not be induced to encumber yourself with one of those ornamented, highly polished, useless abominations popularly known as hunting knives; they are worse than useless, and only serve to exasperate the owner. For general rough and ready work, nothing is better than a strong well-made butcher's knife. The blade should be continued through the handle, which is formed by pinning two cheeks of hard wood or horn together. The hand grip should be long, and the steel sufficiently soft to be cut by a common hand saw file; and we strongly recommend our readers to apply the file test to every cutting tool they provide themselves with, as the hard woods of tropical countries cause endless breakages and notchings when highly-tempered instruments are made use of. In the purchase of a pocket knife, choose one that is small enough to be a constant companion; one, or at most two blades will be found sufficient for one handle. A very convenient description of knife is to be met with in most hardware shops. The handle is straight and flat. A stout stick-cutting blade is at one end of the haft, and a strong scalpel-shaped pen blade at the other. The miniature tool chests sold under the name of pocket knives to emigrants are jacks of all trades in their way, having all sorts of supposed capabilities, associated with a general tendency to uselessness. A pair of stout large bowed scissors will be found very useful, as well as a small piece of Turkey or Washita oilstone. This should have a little wooden box with a slide cover made for it, in order to preserve it from breakage. A few tools, well selected, can scarcely be dispensed with. The following list we can recommend, but our readers must of course be guided as to the number they will take by the purposes of their proposed journey:-

Small hand axe, felling axe (American pattern).

Belt tomahawk.

Hand saw (medium size).

Three chisels (?in., ?in., and ?in.), and one cold chisel.

Three gouges (of the same sizes as the chisels).

Three gimblets (from ten-penny nail size downwards).

Six bradawls (assorted), to fit in one boxwood handle.

Six saddler's awls, ditto ditto.

Six shoemaker's awls, ditto ditto.

One ?in. shell auger (without handle).

One screw driver (?in).

One engineer's riveting hammer (?lb).

One pair of carpenter's pincers.

One pair of strong pliers (bell-hanger's pattern).

Three hand-saw files (one rat-tail; one flat; one half-round).

One rasp, one soldering bolt, one pair of tin snips, ingot of solder, a lump of resin, and small ladle for lead melting.

A few nails, screws, pump tacks, and coils of copper and iron wire, will be found useful.

Billhook, as in illustration.

Billhooks.

One or more billhooks will be found of great value when traversing the tangled thickets, for dividing vines, lianas, briars, and entangled branches. We have found the following form of hook extremely powerful, and capable of cutting through most formidable impediments. The following illustration represents the two sides of the hook, which, as will be seen on examination, are not alike. The near side of the blade, or that which would, when the instrument is used by a right-handed man, lay towards the left, is slightly hollowed, and the edge, instead of being bevelled, remains perfectly flush with it, like the front of a very large gouge. The off-side edge is bevelled, and exactly like that of a chisel. The plate of the blade should be 10in. long, and stouter at the back than most ordinary English billhooks. Instead of terminating in a tang or spill, the metal should be continued throughout the handle as far as the point at which the curved knob at its end is carved out. Handles for these hooks are best made from natural-grown sticks of suitable bend. The wood must be tough, strong, durable, and well seasoned. When nearly finished, a saw cut must be made the exact length of the continuation of metal from the blade, and this must be opened and widened with a flat file until the plate fits exactly in it. A strong wide ring must now be driven on at the upper end, and three stout soft iron pins passed through both the wood and iron of the handle, riveting the ends securely in countersunk holes prepared for their reception. The handle may now be finished, and made to fit the grip of the hand by the use of the rasp, and some pieces of broken glass as scrapers. The temper of these tools must be regulated by the file test. Leather sheaths should be made for them, with guide straps for the belt to go through.

Tool hold-all.

Portable tool chest.

All the small tools can be conveniently packed and carried in a leather or canvas hold-all. This is merely a long strip of either canvas or leather, with longitudinal bands sewn on the inside. The tools are arranged side by side under these, and then rolled up and tied carefully together with a wide tape string. All the edge tools should be tempered or let down to meet the file test, ground and set, before being finally packed. The axe handle should be of well-seasoned hickory, and so made as to admit of being knocked forward through the eye of the blade, and so removed from it, as shown in the illustration of the group of tools on the next page. A grooved strip of wood should be fitted to the edge of the saw, in order to preserve the teeth and keep the blade straight. A leather bag may be also made for it with advantage. To those who do not require such tools as we have described, and yet wish to provide themselves with a very few, of small size, we can confidently recommend the following arrangement. Order from a tin-plate worker a stout, wire-edged tin box, with wire hinges. Let it be 7in. long, 3in. wide, and 2?in. deep. In this, several small files, one or two small chisels, a number of both straight and curved awl blades, a screw driver, hammer head, pliers, a few sail needles, a small hand vice, a watchmaker's drill and bits, a jointed blowpipe, some bits of solder, a little lump of resin, bits of brass and copper wire, some pieces of watchspring for cutting metal, a narrow cold chisel, and several other odds and ends, may be conveniently stowed away. A watch-spring saw needs no teeth; it is only requisite to occasionally run the face of a file from end to end, flat on the edge, as if in the act of blunting it, to renew its cutting power. A gun barrel, or a bar of iron the thickness of a walking-stick, can be cut through in an inconceivably short time with one of these little instruments, aided by a little sweet oil.

Camp Furniture.

Beds.

The best camp bed we ever possessed was made on the stretcher principle. The side bars were of birch wood, and ferruled in the centre, so as to admit of their being taken into four lengths. The legs, also of birchwood, shut and opened like two pairs of scissors. The centre piece of the bed was of stout canvas, sewn into pipes at the sides, through which the side bars passed. The head of the bed was formed by fixing two uprights in holes made for them, and then fixing a cross bar on their ends to keep them in place. A very thin cocoa-fibre mattress, cocoa-fibre pillow, and three thoroughly good brown blankets, are conveniently packed in a painted canvas bag, with the framework of the bed. Camp beds, of endless variety, are sold by all outfitters; but we describe that mentioned above as having stood the test of no ordinary wear and tear most satisfactorily. The various modes by which beds, hammocks, and litters are extemporised by travellers will be fully dealt with when that subject comes under consideration. In this section of our work we merely point out that which is best purchased at home, leaving the multiplication of the various objects, in some measure, to the judgment of the intending traveller.

Hammock.

A hammock is a very luxurious sort of bed, but most people are alarmed by the very elaborate system of clews and rings by which it is suspended, and in very deed, even with the most scrupulous cleanliness, these are apt, in places where vermin abound, to harbour a great many; but this might be avoided by having the canvas 10ft. or 12ft. long, and gathering it at the ends so as to dispense with clews altogether. It would then have the advantage that, when it could not be suspended, it might be folded as a double sheet upon the ground to lay the rest of the bedding on. A hammock can be slung in very unpromising places. We were accustomed to keep two (washed, clews and all, every fortnight), stretched to a bamboo pole, which we slung from the beams overhead. One end may be fastened to a tree or to the waggon wheel, and the rope attached to the other may pass over forked sticks set up as shears, and lead to a tent peg driven firmly into the ground. A sheet may be thrown over the pole or ridge rope, to serve as a tent or curtain.

Wrapper.

It is a very favourite plan in South Africa to have the blanket covered on both sides with chintz or printed cotton, quilted to it. This keeps it clean for a long time, and makes it much more efficient as a coverlet.

Most countries have some peculiar wrapper of their own, as the buffalo robe of North America, the opossum rug of Australia, or the Vel Komboars or sheepskin blanket of the Cape colony. We have used as a pillow an inflated swimming belt, but in all cases when india-rubber goods are used, they must be kept from much exposure to the sun, and, above all, from contact with grease. We have had a waterproof overcoat so heated when folded away that we could not again open it; but one of these lined with calico, and covered with thin non-adhesive stuff, we should think would be useful.

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The following statement will serve to show approximately the nature and quantity of stores, &c., required for an expedition such as that to which we were attached in Australia:-

The Party.-Commander, A. C. Gregory; Assistant, H. C. Gregory; Geologist, J. G. Wilson; Artist and Storekeeper, T. Baines; Surgeon and Naturalist, J. R. Elsey; Botanist, F. Müller; Collector, Natural History, &c., - Flood; Overseer, J. Phibbs; Farrier and Smith; Harness-maker; Stockmen, European (9); Shepherds, Native (2)-Total, 21.

Provisions, &c. for 18 months.-17,000lb. flour, 5000lb. salt pork, 2000lb. bacon, 2000lb. preserved fresh meat in 6lb. tins, 2800lb. rice, 2500lb. sugar, 400lb. tea, 350lb. tobacco, 350lb. soap, 50lb. pepper, 500lb. salt, 100 galls. vinegar, 300 sheep, 200lb. sago, 640 pints peas, 2 cwt. coffee, 500lb. lime juice, 6 galls. lamp oil, 1lb. cotton wick, 3 cwt. preserved potatoes.

Land Conveyance.-50 horses, 35 pack saddles, 15 riding saddles, 50 horse blankets, 800 fathoms tether rope 1?in. and 2in., 20 horse bells with straps, 100 pair hobbles, 3 light horse drays; 3 sets harness, 3 horses each; 50 spare girths, 50yds. strong girth web, 50 bridles, 10 pair holster bags, 10 pair stirrup leathers, 5 pair stirrup irons, 40 pair canvas pack-saddle bags, 100 straps, 200 buckles, 4 leather water bags, 20 pair spurs, 150lb. leather for repairs, 600 horseshoes and nails, 240 provision bags, 300 yds. canvas, 20lb. sewing twine, 100 needles, 6 palms, 24 saddler's awls, 48 balls hemp, ?lb. bristles, 6lb. resin, 6lb. beeswax, 12 hanks small cord, 6 currycombs and brushes, 25 tether swivels.

Arms and Ammunition.-16 double guns, 4 rifles, 10 revolvers, 10 pistols, 200lb. gunpowder, 1000lb. shot and lead, 30,000 percussion caps, 20 belts and pouches, 15 gun buckets, straps, locks, spare nipples, moulds, punches, 4 ladles, powder flasks, shot pouches, &c., for each gun.

Camp Furniture.-5 tents 8ft. square calico, 150 yds. calico, 12 camp kettles (? to 3 galls.), 6 doz. pannikins, 4 doz. tin dishes (small), 1 doz. large, 4 doz. knives and forks, 4 doz. iron spoons, 6 frying pans, 6 leather buckets, 6 water kegs (6, 4, and 2 galls.), 6 spades, 4 socket shovels, 4 pickaxes, 2 spring balances (25 and 50lb.), 1 steelyard (150lb.), 1 sheep net (150 yds.).

Instruments.-2 sextants (5in. and 6in.), 2 box do., 2 artificial horizons, 10lb. mercury in 2 iron bottles, 4 prismatic compasses, 11 pocket compasses, spare cards and glasses for compasses, 3 aneroid barometers, 4 thermometers to 180°, 2 telescopes, 1 duplex watch, 1 lever watch, 1 case drawing instruments; 2 pocket cases, pillar compass, and protractor; surveying chain and arrows, 2 measuring tapes, 1 drawing board (30 × 40 inches), 2 pocket lenses.

Stationery and Nautical Tables.

Tools.-1 portable forge, 1 anvil (? cwt.), 2 hammers and set of tongs, 10lb. cast steel, 11lb. blister steel, 100lb. bar and rod iron, 3 smiths' files, 3 large axes (American), 6 small do.; 1 large tool chest.

Clothing.-120 pair moleskin trowsers, 120 serge shirts, 120 cotton shirts, 60 pair boots, 40 oiled calico capes, 40 hats (Manilla), 40 blankets.

Artists' Materials.

Miscellaneous.-5 yds. mosquito net, green; 500 fish-hooks, 25 fishing-lines, 2 gross matches, 1 gross tobacco-pipes; 2 strong cases, or instruments, stationery, &c.; 8 doz. pocket-knives, 8 doz. pocket-combs, 20 yds. red serge for presents to blacks, 20lb. iron wire, 5lb. brass ditto, grindstone and spindle, coffee-mill, 3 iron saucepans, 2 iron kettles, 6 galls. linseed oil, 6 pints olive oil, 2lb. red lead, 23lb. alum, 1lb. borax.

Forage for Horses and Sheep from Moreton Bay to Victoria River, 2200 miles, at 14lb. per diem.-13 tons pressed hay, 9 tons bran, 200 bushels maize or barley, 500 bushels corn for horses after landing.

Medical Chest for 2 years and 20 men.

Naturalists' Stores.

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NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION INFLATABLE DOUBLE BOAT.

Boats.

We took, for conveyance across rivers, or navigation of any inland waters, a portable canoe of inflated canvas, in four sections, each of which, when inflated and laced to a frame, formed half a boat; the whole forming a double canoe, on which could be laid a platform of 15ft. by 7ft.

Inflated canvas boat.

The boat was made by Messrs. Edgington from a model which we had previously constructed and tested as to its buoyancy and sailing qualities. The framework was of ash battens, 3in. wide and ?in. thick. The uprights at stem and stern were mortised into the keel, as well as into the corresponding fore-and-aft batten above; they were secured by cross lashings passing through holes properly bored for the purpose. The gunwales were lashed on; and then the thwart pieces, 6in. wide, were secured in the same manner. The four canvas bags, each cut so as to form half a whale boat, 15ft. long and 18in. in the half breadth, were then laced in and inflated. Each rowlock was formed of two pieces of ash screwed to the gunwale, as seen in the preceding engraving; and two oars and a lug sail completed the equipment. The whole might be used either as a double canoe or as two separate boats, and Mr. Gregory was much pleased with them when put together; but, in consequence of a technical difficulty at home, they were not so efficient as they ought to have been. We had agreed with Messrs. Edgington as to the quality of canvas and of the sewing to be used in every part, but on applying to the Waterproofing Company he found they would not waterproof his work, nor allow him to do it. He had therefore to give over the whole of the work to the company. When finished, we found that the seams were not stitched at all, but cemented together; and, though warranted to stand 170° of heat, we found that with the strain of actual use upon them they softened and gave way. If the sections in their proper form were made of stout canvas, with the india-rubber bags, so large that they should bear no strain, inclosed within them, this would be a serviceable boat-for the india-rubber did not actually melt with the heat, but just softened, so that it was unable to resist the strain upon it. We had taken them up the river, about thirty miles, in the schooner's gig, to fill with fresh water, and instead of standing a heat of 170° they burst at 120°.

Although, as we have stated, our double inflatable boat partially failed in Australia, from the inability of the waterproof cement to bear the intense heat to which it was subjected, we believe that, had Messrs. Edgington been allowed to waterproof their own work, or had the company consented to waterproof the sections, properly seamed by practical tentmakers, according to the directions we gave, the finished boat would have been as successful in every respect as was the model.

When required for an exploring trip up the river, we decided to use them not as a double boat, but as two single ones, and we spent some days in securely stitching round every seam that should have been so treated by the original maker. Every one will understand how the fibre of the waterproof cloth would no longer close up round the threads, as would that of the new canvas, so that, notwithstanding all our care, there was always a little air leakage; however, spare bellows had been provided, and one was apportioned to each boat.

Four or five 6lb. tins of preserved beef were thrust in between the sections in each boat, so as to rest along the keel, our lighter stores were laid as might be said "on deck," and with two small oars in each we started, pulling up wherever there was sufficient water, and when we came to the dry intervals, slinging the boats one at a time under two oars, and carrying them easily with all their cargo to the next water. The voyage lasted some days, and the boats, therefore, occasionally required re-inflating.

Canoe for one man.

If the traveller only wishes for the means of ferrying himself over rivers, he might take a couple of waterproof tubes, not less than 7ft. long and 8in. in diameter, inclosed in unprepared covers of canvas so tight as to relieve them from any strain, and connected by one breadth of canvas for him to sit upon. A small frame should keep these parallel to each other, and about 20in. or 2ft. apart; and the frame should be kept just above the water, so as not to impede the motion. It is a great thing to be independent of native help. If a man has his own canoe, however small, the people will come to offer theirs; but if he has none, they will make a hard bargain with him.

Metal boats.

Perhaps as good a material as any for a boat, if the explorer is able to carry it, is pure sheet copper, of about 1lb. to the square foot. It is flexible, easily worked, will turn and bend in any form and at any angle; it may be folded down to a sharp edge like a sheet of paper, and opened again, a test which no iron ordinarily procurable could stand; it is nearly indestructible, and retains a proportionate value as old copper however much it may be worn.

We have heard of an officer who had the two ends of a yawl or whale-boat built of copper, and, though the stem would frequently be doubled up by touching the ground in crossing the bar of some African river, no leakage took place, and half an hour's skilful hammering brought it into shape again. We believe that the boats, or at least one of them, on the expedition of Mr. Lynch to the Dead Sea and the Jordan, were of copper. If we remember rightly a copper boat was carried in sections upon camels to Lake Chad.

Captain Burton took to Zanzibar a boat of corrugated iron, which was so speedy that the Arabs called her the Runner-away; it would be interesting to know the details of her construction. We at one time experimented with galvanised iron, but did not find it sufficiently flexible to bend so sharply as we required. In consequence of this-when preparing, in conjunction with a long-known friend, Mr. James Chapman, for a journey across Africa, from Walvisch Bay, on the west coast, to the Victoria Falls, from which we hoped to navigate the Zambesi to the Eastern Sea-we decided on building one of copper; and many reasons induced us to make this on the principle of a double canoe or twin steamer: in the first place, it would be difficult to carry a boat of more than three feet in breadth or depth, in an ox waggon, and these dimensions would afford room only for the closest possible stowage of our own persons, and a very scanty equipment. It was also, probable, that the boats would have, at rapids like Chicova or Kebrabasi, to be taken out of the water and carried over rugged and intricate country, where their length would render it impossible to manage them.

It was necessary, therefore, to build each boat in six watertight compartments, of 4ft. in length, of one sheet of copper, each of which overlapped the one behind it, just as the scales of a lobster are arranged, making the actual length of the boat 22ft. The "skin" of each section was made of three sheets of copper, 2ft. wide, laid side by side with their edges doubled over each other, so as to make a perfectly turned joint that required no riveting, and was only soldered to render it more certainly watertight. The ends of each section were marked to the curve required, but cut three inches larger, the extra circumference being cut with snips directed toward the centre, so that they might be turned outward to fit the curve of the skin, thus leaving a flange of 3in. at each end of the section, a strip of copper 6in. wide was doubled and slipped over both parts, riveted and soldered, the necessary surfaces having been previously tinned.

We hope the engraving on the next page will make this plan tolerably plain. The end to the right is left unfinished, with the separate pieces a little apart ready to be put together; the farther shows the manner in which the flange of the foremost section overlaps the after, and is bolted to it with copper screws and nuts, leaving a space between, into which the hand and arm could be thrust if it were needful to reach the bottom; the water would flow in or out of this narrow space freely, the compartments only being guarded against leakage; the nuts were all on the inside, and the iron key shown in the sketch was for the purpose of turning them on or off, while the heads were held outside by the screw wrench. The copper was kept in shape by an inner frame of wood, and strengthened externally by seven rib-bands or stringers of good straight grained red deal, running the entire length, of which two served for gunwales and one for the keel, the ends of this being let into sockets formed in the pieces of copper which were doubled over the stem and stern post. One of the connecting beams is shown in this sketch, and also the rings by which the sections were to be carried when separated for overland conveyance.

METHOD OF BUILDING AND CONNECTING SECTION OF COPPER BOAT.

COPPER BOATS ADJUSTED SIDE BY SIDE.

For the purpose of keeping the cargo dry and secure from pilfering, it was necessary that each section should have its own deck, and this, to bear the weight of people standing on it, had to be made of ?in. plank, covered like the other parts with copper. Around each hatchway were two mouldings, ?in. high, the hollow between which, in heavy rains, we intended to fill with wax or grease, so that when the corresponding moulding of the hatch fitted into it it might be watertight. The connecting beams were 12ft. long, and made each of two pieces of ?in. red deal, 2in. wide, so as to afford us, with the platform laid on them, an available deck space of 12ft. by 20ft., on which, when the river was broad and open, we might live or work with comfort; while, if it narrowed, as we expected it would at Kansalo, Chicova, or Kebrabasi, we could separate the boats and take each through singly, towing the deck-raft, or even, if necessary, casting it adrift and trusting to pick it up as the current brought it down. Two ?in. planks, 9in. deep and 4ft. long, so as to catch the bolts at either end of the section, served to support the rowlocks. Each boat was provided with her own rudder, and we purposed, if necessary, to connect the tillers by a light rod, although we believe she would have steered by one alone. The masts were shipped in a wooden case, between the foremost and the next section, and the mode of setting the lug sails and awning will, we trust, be made sufficiently plain by the engraving. Care had to be taken that no iron or other metal capable of exerting a corrosive action came in contact with any part of the copper that was likely to be wetted. And the reader will pardon us if, while stating that the whole was built piece by piece in a little bedroom scarce 8ft. by 12ft., we take this opportunity of paying a slight tribute of gratitude to our warmhearted friend Frederick Logier, to whose hospitality we were mainly indebted for the means of completing our equipment, and who fell a victim to the fever so fearfully prevalent in Cape Town in October, 1867. The ensign, kindly made for us by a lady of that town, after having floated over our house at Logier Hill, on the Zambesi, and served as the flag of our little artillery corps at Otjimbengue, we still preserve as a relic of the journey.

The difficulties of the road, and deficiency of carriage, which compelled us to leave behind eight out of the twelve sections, and our expedients to replace them, will be more fully described hereafter: we, therefore, append only an abstract of the materials employed in building:-

76 sheets copper, 4ft. by 2ft. 16oz. to the foot, at 1s. 6d. per foot (but, as the supply was limited, we had to take some heavier, and consequently more expensive), one sheet same size 16lb. for stem, and stern post and rudder fittings ￡51 12 0

100?in. copper, screwed bolts and nuts, 3in., at 1s. 1d. 5 8 4

80 ditto ditto ditto 5in., at 1s. 5d. 5 13 4

5 ditto ditto ditto 7in., at 1s. 9d. 0 8 9

300 leather washers 1 5 0

174?lb. solder, at 1s. 6d.

5lb. fine tin, at 2s. 3d.

Extra quantity not specified 13 4 4

0 11 3

3 15 1?

17 10 8?

Men's time for soldering 17 17 6

Coke 1 2 6

2 nut wrenches 0 11 3

4lb. of sal ammoniac, at s. 6d. 0 6 0

4lb. of resin, at 4?d. 0 1 6

1 bottle of spirit of salts 0 1 4

6lb. of lead, at 4?d. 0 2 3

3lb. of copper boat nails, at 3s. 6d. 0 10 6

2lb. of nails and 2lb. of rivets, at 3s. 0 12 0

3 steel punches, at 1s. 0 3 0

2 pair of rowlocks, with sockets and screws 0 7 6

Total ￡103 13 5?

CAMP SCENE IN AFRICA.

It is impossible, at this distance of time, to collect every item used, nor is it necessary to do more than to give an approximate idea of the cost and proportion used of the principal materials. Perhaps the wood, with a lad to assist in working it, cost about 10l.; paint, oil, sails, and other extras, about 10l. more; and 10l. freight from Cape Town to Walvisch Bay. We think 6d. per lb. was allowed on such old copper as was brought back.

Tents, Canvas Buckets and Articles made of Canvas generally.

Tent-pitching.

In an army where men are plentiful and tents very few, the eighteen or twenty fortunate fellows to whom a bell tent may be allotted, can pitch it easily and rapidly enough; one, standing inside, will hold up the central pole, while the others, driving pegs all round, draw out and affix the cords to them. We found, however, when accompanying the division in Kafirland under General Somerset, that we could set up our own tent, shared by Mr. Hoole, the interpreter, almost as quickly alone, leaving our friend's servant at liberty to prepare our meal. Our plan was to make two knots on the cord used for lashing up the tent, one marking the radius of the inner line of pegs and the other that of the outer, setting a central peg into the ground and looping over it the end of the line; we held another at the knots, and with it drew the two concentric circles. Twenty pegs are necessary for each. We, therefore, threw four on the quarters of each circle, and distributing four between each, drove them all into the ground; then spreading the tent in the space, we looped on all the lines, and inserting the pole, raised it up, its division into two pieces much facilitating this, and tightened the cords at leisure. (See illustration, "Camp Scene in Africa.")

Patrol tent.

Our patrol tent was just three yards of double width calico; a small cord was stitched along the middle and loops of tape along the sides. The diagonal pieces cut out of one end were stitched on to form the flaps of the other, and a couple of small sticks for the supports, the size of ramrods, were easily secured with the straps of our gun-bucket on the right side of the saddle.

CALICO PATROL TENT.

CALICO PATROL TENT.

Our little tent weighed next to nothing; it was seven feet in length, thirty inches high, and nearly thirty inches wide. We rolled our blankets in it, and so kept them clean. The package was carried strapped across the front of the saddle, and the latter, when set in one end of the tent, formed an additional protection to the head, and no rain ever penetrated our little dwelling, unless when a violent side wind would force through the interstices of the calico a slight sprinkling of minute drops, which would lie like dew outside the blanket in the morning. Waterproof material is not required for a tent; oiling the canvas or calico would only rot it; stout well-woven canvas is nearly waterproof in itself, and no matter how porous or open the material, the power of a tent to keep out rain depends more on the "pitch" of its sides or roof than anything else. Let a plate of glass lie in a sloping position, and let a drop of water be touched upon its under surface, if that surface makes an angle of less than 45° with the horizon the water will drop off it, but if the angle be above 45° it will run from top to bottom along the lower side; in like manner if the sides of the tent are pitched at a higher angle than 45° with the horizon, the heaviest shower will run down them instead of penetrating. A piece of waterproof is, however, very convenient to lay upon the ground to spread the blankets on.

Gipsy tent.

Most of our readers who have visited the by-lanes and breezy downs of England, will be familiar with, at least, the exterior of the gipsy's tent. Its mode of arrangement is both ingenious and thoroughly practical. We know of no plan by which a comparatively comfortable resting place can be extemporised equal to it. Blankets, skins, mats, canvas, or old rugs, serve to form a covering. The thicket furnishes the hazel wands or "benders," of which there are usually eight, of 7ft. long, and almost any description of tough wood, the "hole piece" and farmer's gate shivers are not unfrequently purloined by the Romany Rye to be thus utilised. A red hot poker serves to bore the holes. A few pieces of odd cord keep the framework in place, and a set of pegs is readily cut from the nearest hedge.

GIPSY TENT FRAME.

The ends of the benders intended for insertion in the earth are usually fire-hardened, and one set will, with care, last a whole season. The above illustration will better explain the mode by which the contrivance is arranged than would any further description.

Tente d'abri.

The tente d'abri, as used by the French army, is an extremely useful arrangement for a small band of travellers or explorers to provide themselves with. It is composed of a number of sheets or pieces of canvas. Each of these has a row of buttons and button-holes sewn along the sides and upper edges, in order that they may be joined to each other, much on the principle of a double-breasted waistcoat, as shown in the engraving on the next page. The corners of the sheets are provided with strong short loops of rope, through which the heads of the tent pegs pass when the tent is pitched. The sheets are 5ft. 8in. by 5ft. 3in. Each member of a party of four or six is supposed to carry his share of the tent, which consists of one sheet, three tent pegs, and the half of a round wooden staff ferruled in the centre like a fishing-rod. This, when put together, measures 4ft. 4in. in length, and is 1?in. in diameter. The total weight of each share is 3?lb. Tents of this description can be arranged by either buttoning four or six sheets together, one sheet being considered as representing the accommodation of one man; but when it is considered necessary to close the two ends of the tent four sheets only are used as a covering, the other two being used as doors. A centre tent pole is also set up, so that a tent for six men has, when pitched, three poles, ten pegs, and six sheets of canvas. When both ends are suffered to remain unclosed, as they would be when shade alone is sought, four tent poles or sticks and fourteen tent pegs are required; there would, then, be two spare poles and four pegs. By digging out a cavity in the earth as described at page 62, the comfort and internal capacity of the tente d'abri is much increased, and it forms a very convenient and portable shelter. We remember seeing a French line regiment, which was for some considerable time stationed on the heights above the Inkerman Valley, most comfortably domiciled in this way.

TENTE D'ABRI.

Lancers' tent.

The Lancers, in Kafirland, used to form very commodious tents by sticking upright in the ground one lance and two swords; a second lance was passed as a ridge pole through the becket or loop of the first and the hilts of the two swords, as seen in illustration, "Camp Scene in Africa." One blanket was stretched over it as a tent, and another, with the saddle cloths, &c., formed a comfortable bed for two soldiers.

A simpler form of tent may be made at a moment's notice. If rain comes on, sit upright, joining the hands above the head as if you were about to dive, supporting the blanket on them, and allowing it to hang down on all sides that the rain may run off. If you have no blanket, you may still keep your gun, ammunition, or sketch-book dry by sitting on them.

TENT EXTEMPORISED FROM A BLANKET.

Australian tent.

The tents we used on the North Australian expedition were very light, convenient, and easily set up. They were simply four-sided pyramids of calico, eight feet square in the base, and from 9ft. to 10ft. in height (see p. 65). They were lightly roped at the angles, and would set up with four principal pegs, though there were loops for intermediate ones along the sides. Poles could not conveniently be carried on the packhorses, but there were few places in Australia where we could not cut them if needed; and in fine weather, we mostly dispensed altogether with the tents, except as mere sun-shades, and slept only in our blankets. Their weight, dry, was trifling, but, on account of their bulk, they formed the greater part of the load of one horse, and when we had to travel-after a rainy night, without drying them-we found that two wet tents, with the farrier's tools and a few horseshoes, were quite heavy enough as a load for one animal.

Cape-waggon tent.

A very favourite form of tent in the Cape colony is made like the longitudinal half section of a ridge-pole tent. This is fastened to the roof of the travelling waggon and stretched beside it. When the traveller has two of these, one on each side his vehicle, he will find it of the greatest possible convenience. The waggon, with its own aristocratic kap-tent, or humble but more durable wattled roof, serves as the sleeping chamber; while the half tent on one side may serve as a dining or general reception room, and the other as a working or retiring apartment. These may either be raised or lowered according to the position of the sun or wind, or may be completely closed in at night; or, if required, the two halves can be taken away from the waggon altogether, laced together, and, with poles cut upon the spot, set up at once as a double-pole tent, as shown on p. 65.

THE CAPE-WAGGON TENT.

Extemporary tents.

We have found in Australia and Africa, that the possession of a large square of duck or canvas, eylet-holed at the corners and sides, or a couple of good sized sheets of stout unbleached calico, with loops of tape or cord stitched at the sides and angles, have enabled us to construct extemporary screens from sun or wind, or even rain, and when not so required have served admirably as the basis for our bedding. In boat parties the sails or awnings of the boat may be stretched upon the mast or oars, two oars at each end may be lashed crosswise, and set up as shear legs, while the mast is used as a ridge pole, and the sail drawn across them; there is, however, the objection that the blades of the oars if projecting upward will hold wind, and they should therefore be "feathered" toward the quarter whence it may be expected to blow; but never forget that the making of a tent is only a secondary and exceptional use for a boat's gear; if the sail is chafed or cut, its proper usefulness will be much deteriorated; and if the oars are allowed to sag or bend, by undue strain, they become worse than useless. You can no more pull effectively with a warped or twisted oar than you can shoot well with a crooked gun. In a boat voyage on a river, or where you can make fast and shelter your boat at night, if you set up two stanchions three or four feet higher than the gunwale, one at the after and another at the bow thwart, and then make fast a line to the ringbolt in the stern post, and lead it over the stanchions to the other ring in the stem, it will form a ridge rope on which the boat's awning with the yards or stretchers removed may be laid, and the sides sloped down tent fashion to the gunwales, and made fast either to the rowlocks or, still better, to a stout line passed tightly all round the boat outside of and just below the gunwale streak.

If you build a hut, and have not time or material to make it weather proof, the tent may with great advantage be pitched as a lining to it, and it is wonderful what effective shelter may be obtained from very imperfect hutting done in this manner.

We have frequently heard of officers and men setting up their tents or marquees, then building the framework of their hut over them, covering it roughly, and finishing at their leisure, so that, by the time the tents have been worn out, very efficient thatched houses have taken their places.

We should think that a bell tent (such as may be purchased at any town where military stores are kept), cut in half, and supplemented with a couple of squares of canvas, eylet-holed at two inches or more from the edge, so as to lace between the two halves of the bell tent, and used as a double-pole tent, either with a ridge pole or with a rope extended at either end as a stay, would form a very commodious habitation, and would be specially useful where the number of occupants is subject to changes.

SECTION OF CRIMEAN TENT.

Fitting up of tent.

When a tent is to be occupied for any length of time, it will be advisable to dig a hole in the earth to pitch it over, doing so not only adds materially to the space inside the tent, but makes it much more comfortable to reside in, from the shelter afforded by the sides of the excavation. Many of the huts built by the Russian soldiers in the neighbourhood of Sebastopol were sunk to a very great depth, being in fact merely large holes in the earth with roofs to them. The roofs were of poles thickly laid over with brushwood, and then covered with earth, light was admitted through holes in the low framework of the sides, oiled paper being used as a substitute for glass. About 2ft. 6in. will be found a good depth for the excavation for an ordinary military tent to stand over. In digging it see that the sides are cut down evenly, and that the bottom is level. If planks can be procured to floor and line it so much the better. Some persons leave a round bank of earth in the middle for the pole to rest on, but we much prefer fixing a log of wood, cut from a tree trunk, in the centre of the floor. The habitation we formed for ourselves in the Crimea, when encamped before Sebastopol, was thus arranged. We first made a hole in the earth a little less than the diameter of the bottom of the tent, and of the depth before referred to; we then made a pit in the centre about 18in. in depth. In this we sank the lower end of a piece of old tree trunk, 4ft. long and 7in. in diameter. In its upper surface we cut with a gouge a cup-like cavity. We then nailed a spiral strapping of forage hoop round a boat mast we were fortunate enough to hunt out at Balaklava; we then rounded the lower end so as to make it loosely fit into the cup on the head of the block. The bell or upper portion of an old tent was then raised on our mast tent pole, and over it our own new and complete tent, forming so to speak a double roof, having about a couple of inches of space between the two surfaces of canvas. This, by holding a certain portion of air, added in an extraordinary degree to its sheltering properties. We next dug a deep drain completely round the tent, and placed a quantity of broken stones in its bottom. An old wooden packing case was then let in, by digging into one of the sides of the excavation immediately under the doorway. This not only answered the purpose of a step to enter by, but formed an excellent storehole for all sorts of stray matters. The pipe from a small Maltese stove was carried out through the earth, and discharged its smoke outside a low wall of rough stones which encircled the tent. We drove two strong posts deeply into the earth beside the door, across their tops we nailed a strong bar, which served to hitch horses to, rest gun against, &c.; whilst across their lower portions we stretched a piece of forage hoop, edge upwards, to perform the part of a bootscraper. Towards the end of the war we were enabled to procure plank enough to both floor and line the tent throughout, thereby adding much to our comfort. The lining is carried out by placing boards the height of the side banks on their ends, all round the tent, like the staves of a barrel, and then nailing the flooring boards here and there fast to them. The upper ends are kept in their places by nailing short battens of wood across the joints.

The illustration on page 62 is a section of the tent referred to, and shows the manner in which many of the arrangements described are made. Many tents we have seen have been dug out to a sufficient depth to admit of a sort of cellar or lower room being formed; this can only be done at the expense of much trouble and labour. The arrangement of the interior of a tent admits of the exercise of a considerable amount of ingenuity. Cart, waggon, or gun wheels are extremely useful, both for forming a secure base for the pole to rest on, and for a table and gun rack. The tent pole, as shown in the engraving on the next page, rests on one wheel, whilst it passes through the centre of the nave of another. The hooks for hanging various objects from are formed by the natural branches of the tree from which the pole has been made. We seldom make use of the ferruled pole furnished with the tent when we have young forest trees at hand; in the absence of these, the conventional deal stick serves to fall back on.

THE UTILIZATION OF WHEELS.

TENT PEG.

Tent peg.

Modes of securing tent ropes, &c.

Much of the efficiency of a tent depends on the way in which it is pitched. An experienced hand will so adjust his pegs and lines, that the gale of wind which prostrates the canvas houses of the inexperienced, passes his harmlessly by. Much has been said and written in praise of iron tent pegs, and, under some circumstances, they may be found highly useful, but there are very serious objections to their use in wild countries. If of sufficient size and length to be efficient, their weight becomes a matter of considerable importance. Their value to natives is so great that to prevent loss by theft is next to impossible; added to which, it is almost certain that one or two will be left in the ground, every now and then, on striking camp. We therefore prefer wooden pegs, made from some tough sound wood. Burn the points in the fire in order to harden them, and keep a good stock always on hand. The timber of the oriental plane makes excellent tent pegs. A strong and useful form of peg is shown in the annexed illustration. made of some heavy and hard wood, such as mimosa or baubul thorn. The handle should be made larger at one end than the other, so that it may be removed from the head of the mallet, just as the axe handles before described are separated from the blades. It not unfrequently happens, during tropical rains, or in sandy soil, that pegs driven in the ordinary way will not hold. It then becomes necessary to dig a moderately deep pit at the point at which the peg should stand. Bind together a small faggot of brushwood, reeds, or weed stalks; fasten a loop of rope or thong to it long enough to come 3in. or 4in. above the level of the pit where the faggot is buried. Place your prepared faggot in the bottom of the pit crosswise, and then well stamp in the earth over it. A bag of sand, a stone, or a bundle of old hide answers the same purpose. In rough stormy weather, it is sometimes necessary to back your pegs; this is done by driving in an additional one in a line with the first, and then forming a couple of half hitches with the tent rope over its head. It was a common practice in the Crimea to employ an old Russian bayonet in this way, driving it into the earth until the curved neck alone remained above the surface for the hitch to pass round. All tent ropes should be relaxed on the approach of rain, or the tightened cord will, in all probability, draw the pegs, and thus allow the wet canvas to come flapping down about your ears, causing no end of discomfort and confusion. A tent may be securely pitched, even on the sands of the desert, by laying a waggon wheel flat on the ground, fixing the pole over the hole through which the axle passes on the head of a plug driven far enough into it to prevent the pole from passing through; secure your ropes to bags of sand buried in the manner before described, and no ordinary weather will blow down a tent thus arranged.

MODES OF SECURING TENT-POLE AND ROPES IN LOOSE GROUND.

Selection of ground for tent pitching.

In selecting a spot on which to pitch your tent much will depend on the period of time you are likely to spend in the locality. The nature of the country through which you are passing will also influence the choice. When travelling onwards, and merely resting for one or two days at a time, a dry, raised, level spot, in the vicinity of wood, grass, and water, may safely be selected. Do not, however, encamp too close to water in countries where venomous snakes are met with, as they generally congregate where it is to be found most abundantly. It is not wise, either in Australia or Texas, to encamp beneath certain trees, as the branches at times drop suddenly off and fall with a crash to the earth. In India or Africa we have always sought the friendly shade afforded by some wide-spreading forest giant, as we have never known an instance of "branch-fall" in those countries. In clearing the ground of stray stones, tufts of weeds, &c., look well about for holes in the earth, and, when any are discovered, stamp suitable stones or pieces of broken wood well into them. Reptiles of many kinds are not unfrequently found in these underground burrows. We have found a large square of tarpauling invaluable as a tent carpet. When about to set up your tent for a long sojourn additional precautions are requisite. See well to the lay of the land as regards the flood level of the nearest river or lake; the stray bits of driftwood and weeds washed into the branches of waterside trees will be a useful guide. See that no flags or rushes are growing near your proposed resting-place, as they are certain indications of a boggy soil, unfit for camping on. Choose, if possible, an elevated position, well above the influence of the miasma and night mists of the low grounds and rivers. We have often seen a slightly raised hill standing bare and island-like in a sea of humid vapour. See also that no dry grass is allowed to stand in the vicinity of the camp, lest it should be ignited by a stray spark or a hostile native.

Umbrella tent.

A stout carriage umbrella, with a curtain of 3ft. 6in. buttoned or laced round the edge, would make a very convenient shelter for one person. If the curtains were gored so as to give more room below, two persons might sleep under it comfortably. An extra joint would be required to give sufficient length to the handle. A similar frame made proportionately strong, and with a curtain or wall of six or seven feet, might be found useful in cases where the height of a bell-tent or marquee is objectionable. Malacca cane would be a good material for such a frame. We have heard of an adventurous American traveller who had his umbrella tent made of starred and striped material, so that he might be always under the protection of his country's flag.

Canvas buckets.

CANVAS BUCKET.

Stout canvas buckets answer very well to carry water in for almost any distance, and if stiffly roped will retain their form when filled, and collapse when empty; if a little flour is rubbed into the canvas, it will render them somewhat tighter, and will not materially affect the taste of the water, but we prefer to take the stoutest canvas. Keep it perfectly clean, and trust solely to the natural contraction of the threads when wet, to thicken up and tighten the material so as to render it for all practical purposes nearly waterproof. India-rubber bags, especially if carried into a hot sun, and not quite full, always make the water taste badly. When we served on the North Australian expedition, we always had a canvas bucket hanging in the doorway of the hut, just shaded and exposed to a free current of air. The partial evaporation through its sides kept the water deliciously cool.

Mosquito nets.

If the traveller can afford such a luxury, and is likely to have plenty of tent room, and a sufficient train of well ordered and obedient servitors, we should advise him by all means to take plenty of mosquito net, gauze or tarletan, green or blue. This should be suspended around his bed so as to form an inner tent, pervious in every direction to the cooling breeze, but having no aperture whatever by which a single insect could gain admittance. If the nights are cool, so that he can bear plenty of bedclothing, the face alone may be protected by the net; but if they are likely to be warm, so that he lies with the thinnest possible coverlet, and frequently throws off even that, it must be large enough to inclose the whole bed, and be tucked in or otherwise secured all round; in all cases it must be capacious enough to give him plenty of room to sleep, without touching its sides, for if an unfortunate limb should by any accident touch the gauze, the infinitesimal tormentors would assuredly not neglect to improve their opportunity.

The net may be simply a large square, a portion of the centre may be gathered in the hand, and a cord knotted to it by which to suspend it from above, while the edges are brought round and tucked under the mattrass. If two points of suspension, one near the head and the other at the feet, can be obtained, with a light rod or ridge pole between them, the material may be used to more advantage, and it may, if convenient, be distended by a hoop, square or oblong frame of light canes or twigs, lashed together with a bit of cord.

We had one when in India, cut, and stitched into a cone, or crinoline shape, suspended from above, and tucked around under our bedding, and found it exceedingly serviceable-of course, when the real hard work comes on, all these luxuries go to the rear; but it is wise to enjoy them when you can.

In many parts of the world, we might say in all, where flies are found, dense swarms are sure to seek the shelter of the traveller's tent, causing endless annoyance to the inmates by settling on, or buzzing about, their faces, hands, or the work they may be doing-drinking up every drop of moisture from the angles of the eyes, inserting their probosces into any cut or open sore on the hands for the same purpose.

Odds and Ends.

The ditty bag.

There are a number of articles which, although not strictly found under either of the heads we have before dealt with, will be found of very considerable service in wild countries. A "ditty bag" should be made of some tough strong material, such as fustian, velveteen, or canvas. It should contain a large assortment of needles, especially of the larger and stouter sizes; half-a-dozen medium-sized sail needles, three roping needles, two packing needles, half-a-dozen duck needles, sailmaker's thimble and palm, sail hook, rubber, and piercer; roping, sail, and duck twine. (Learn how to use the palm from a sailor on the voyage.) A dozen skeins of black thread, ditto brown; one dozen skeins of carpet thread, brown; six slips of black silk, six white ditto; six hanks of worsted, the colour of the socks and shirts. All these skeins should be wound off on cards, as endless entanglements follow the attempts made by the inexperienced to use thread from the uncut skein. We also advise winding on cards, as cut thread is not so well adapted, from the number of short lengths in it, for splicing broken fishing-rod joints, &c. A few reels of strong white sewing cotton, a little bag of buttons of all sorts, a lump of beeswax, six pieces of strong tape, a packet of pins, a bodkin, and a pair of strong large bowed scissors. A little ingenuity will enable the traveller to perform an endless number of repairs with the contents of a bag thus furnished. The more needles you can take the better, as they are at all times eagerly sought after by natives.

Bellows.

A small pair of common bellows can be bought for about a shilling. Do not fail to provide at least one of these useful contrivances. It is perfectly surprising to note the number of valuable ends they serve to answer. Stubborn fires, formed of saturated brushwood and damp moss, are, by their aid, forced into a blaze, when ordinary coaxing and fanning only produced suffocating smoke and grievous loss of temper. The fine sand and almost impalpable dust which, in some regions, finds its way in some strange manner into your very gun locks is best removed by the aid of your bellows. Laid flat on the knees a capital board for writing, drawing, or the examination of minute objects, is formed. When cutting out leather thongs with the knife, or fashioning raw hide covers for various things, they may be used for a cutting-board. When snatching a hasty meal at the camp fire at early dawn, before starting on the march or hunt, we do not sit on the damp earth, but usually place our bellows on the ground and sit on that. Most of our small job work, such as fileing, soldering, fish-hook tying, and tackle making, is performed on the ever-ready surface of the bellows; and when small objects of iron or steel require heating, either to be worked, tempered, or case-hardened, a hole in the ground, a little charcoal and dry cow dung, by the aid of the bellows, enables us to extemporise a small forge. Larger forges will be described when smith's work comes under consideration.

Canteens.

Pots and pans.

Table necessaries.

Do not on any account be induced to encumber yourself with what is called a "canteen," a contrivance which is in our opinion much like the many-bladed knife we have before referred to. A few months since, when the expedition in search of Dr. Livingstone was about being sent to Lake Nyassa, two contrivances for cooking were brought to the Royal Geographical Society for approval, and of these, were they to be used by a man who would take proper care of them, we could only speak in terms of unqualified praise. But they were declined simply because it would be impossible to teach a native cook how to use them, and it would be easier to give him a fathom of calico to buy half-a-dozen earthen pots, and to buy more when these were broken. It is, no doubt, vastly ingenious to make a pepper dredge fit into a tea-canister which belongs in the teapot, which in turn should go into the saucepan, only unfortunately the class of persons to whom utensils of this kind are usually entrusted in wild countries are slow to appreciate mechanical puzzles, and usually throw the whole lot into the first bag they can get, when the spout of the teapot gets knocked off, and the pepper becomes hopelessly amalgamated with the tea, to the decided detriment of both. Rather provide yourself with a few plain useful articles for table use. In giving a list of these, we will suppose that one person has to be catered for: a well-made strong quart tin pot, with both hook and handle, is better for making tea in than the conventional teapot; it is also useful for an endless number of other cooking purposes. A knife, fork, and spoon, should be packed in a leather hold-all, like that filled with small tools, which we have already represented on page 43. The knife and fork should have the steel of their blades carried through the handles in a flat plate, to which the cheeks of the haft are riveted; those made with tangs are always shifting round or coming out from being washed in hot water or placed in the sun; the spoon should be of iron, tablespoon size. We have, on more than one occasion, had to melt lead in ours for bullet making, which could not be done if it had been made of any other metal. Get two small wooden bowls, such as bankers keep gold in, take them to a tin-plate worker's, and have narrow copper hoops let into the wood just below the edges, this prevents splitting. Nothing is equal to these for drinking hot tea out of; metal cups of all sorts scald the lips if the tea is moderately heated, and earthenware vessels are too liable to be broken. A half-pint horn cup will be found very useful, and is next to indestructible. We have one which we extemporised from an old Russian powder horn we picked up in the Redan. This has travelled many thousands of miles with us since its conversion, and is just as capable of containing good liquor as ever. A frying-pan is worth anything to a campaigner; fish, flesh, or fowl are all equally well cooked in it. Coffee can be roasted, pancakes made, stews prepared, and a whole host of useful offices performed. Do not forget your frying-pan. It is a good plan to have a "parasol joint," as it is called, made in the handle close to the pan, this will, by bending the handle a little, admit of its being folded across the pan, and thus more easily stowed away. It may be well to observe, perhaps, that the "parasol joint" is formed by cutting two slots in the divided ends, fitting in a short plate, running two rivet-pins through them, and then sliding a ferrule over the joint, which keeps it stiff. Take two dinner plates of enamelled iron; these are best kept with the hold-all, in a flat leather pouch with partitions. A leather loop, or D, at each corner enables you to attach the plate pouch to either your own or the pack saddle. Have a tin canister made; it should be of cylindrical form, and should have a division in the middle, a cover at each end, and be capable of holding 2oz. of ground pepper and 4oz. of fine salt.

The most useful kind of cooking pot we know is the common cast-iron crock of Meg Merrilies pattern. Use it with moderate care, and it will last a lifetime. A wooden cover is easily fitted to it in event of the iron pot lid being lost; and should by any misfortune one of the legs get broken off, and a hole made in the bottom of the crock, a good thick pledget of cotton cloth drawn through it will stop the leak, and remain unconsumed during the boiling process. Bread, meat, birds, fish, vegetables, or fruit can be baked readily in or under the crock, as will be seen when bush cookery is treated on. It is also useful for a variety of other purposes, as will be seen as the work proceeds-take a crock, therefore, by all means. An all-blaze pan is another most useful utensil. It is thus made: Have two deep copper bowls made of a size sufficient to hold about three pints each. These should each have two lugs or handles riveted to them, and a flange raised round the edges should admit of the mouths of the two bowls fitting closely into each other like a box and its cover. The insides must be tinned in the usual manner, and the handles so adjusted that when the two bowls are joined they are opposite to each other and near enough together to be lashed fast with twine. The formula for preparing food by the use of these pans will be given under the head "Camp Cookery."

Leather buckets.

Other odds and ends.

A leather bucket, such as firemen use, will also be found of great service for an endless number of purposes. We invariably carried, when in Central India, a miniature bucket composed of leather, attached to the pack saddle; it held a quart, and by the use of twenty yards of ordinary sea-fishing line, which was always coiled away in it, we have often been enabled to obtain water from deep native wells when other travellers not so provided have been destitute of this priceless treasure. In some portions of the East, the wells are very deep and narrow, so that, without some such contrivance as the above, it is impossible to reach their contents. When collecting specimens of natural history in Turkey, we were on one occasion in much distress for want of water, and after a long search discovered one of these tantalising excavations. There lay the longed-for fluid, glittering like silver down below, but far too deep to reach without some shift or expedient, so we betook ourselves to the sea beach, which was not far off, to see what good fortune would cast in our way. An empty univalve shell, not unlike that of an overgrown whelk, soon rewarded our search; we fixed a stick across its mouth, dragged forth the trailing vines and creepers from a neighbouring thicket, knotted them together, fastened on our shell in company with a goodly stone to give it weight, lowered away briskly, drew up cautiously, and thus treated the parched palate and dry tongue to that which they so much needed. Again and again did our good sea shell travel up and down until, having satisfied the cravings of nature, we resumed our journey; and to the sea shell and vine are we indebted for the design of our miniature bucket and cord which now invariably accompany us on our wanderings. We advise, therefore, that one common fire bucket of leather, and one to contain a quart be provided. Guttapercha buckets are very neat and pleasant to look at, but the sun of the tropics has an awkward habit of causing their bottoms to fall out; we, on one occasion, saw six rendered perfectly unserviceable in one day from this cause. Get a good stock of leather straps and buckles of different sizes from a saddler, these are useful for a variety of purposes. It will be well also to provide a goodly number of padlocks, of two sizes; let the largest be "iron rim," say three inches in diameter, and the smaller size of brass, such as are sold at one shilling each-sixpenny ones are useless; keep one key for each size attached to your watch guard, and carefully lock away all the rest. A butcher's steel, of good quality, is well worth taking. A selection of fishing gear, too, is of the greatest value, of this subject we shall treat at length under the head "Fishing." A corkscrew should be provided, the best pattern we know is that in which the worm fits by a screw into a hollow tube. When required for use, the tube is passed through a flat ring in the end of the shank, and forms a cross handle; screws of this kind are conveniently carried in the waistcoat pocket. Tin boxes of wax vesta matches are exceedingly useful; take a good number of these; get also a tube and cap "strike-a-light" with a chain, striker, bit of agate, and spare cotton cord slow match.

Medicine and Dressings for Wounds.

Medical stores.

On one of Nelson's boat expeditions up a tropical river, the medical chest was unanimously voted a piece of lumber; but, before the arduous voyage had been completed, the only regret was that sufficient medicine had not been taken. An unmanly fear of fever, or other sickness, would probably aid in bringing it on, but reasonable precaution ought never to be neglected.

Many countries have an unenviable notoriety for the prevalence of peculiar and local diseases: some are perfect hotbeds of fever in various forms; and wounds from gunshot, sharp-edged tools or weapons, bruised and fractured bones, are casualties that may befall the traveller in any country, and therefore a few articles for the dressing of these should certainly find a place among his stores.

In case of wounds, cleanliness and repeated washing in cold or tepid water as may be best for the particular case, is the most generally successful treatment, and for this purpose plenty of sponge or flannel should be provided; the sponges should be of moderate size, perfectly clean from grit or bits of shell, close grained, and soft. Flannel is a good substitute; but if a piece of either is used for washing an unhealthy wound on one person, it should never again be used upon another, as it might convey infection, and, indeed, it would be much safer to destroy it utterly.

Lint is, of course, well known to be one of the best coverings for an injured part, and a good supply ought to be taken as, although the underclothing, or sometimes even the bedding, of the party, may supply bandages, very few travellers going on a serious exploration in a wild country would think of taking linen shirts, while sheets would be equally scarce among their bedding.

Cambric or lawn handkerchiefs would be good substitutes.

Calico, for bandages or rollers, would be more likely to be at hand in some parts of Africa, such as the Portuguese stations on the Zambesi, or at Great Fish Bay, where a wrapper of six feet square forms the dress of the native who borders on the possessions of the white man; while in Kafirland or Damaraland, where soft untanned leather is the prevailing dress, it would be less certain to form any considerable part of the equipment.

Adhesive plasters.-Of these perhaps common diachylon is the best; but in a hot country, like Africa, we have seen a roll of it soften during the journey, and, in exemplification of its name, sticking so fast together that it looked more like a field marshal's baton than anything else, and the spreading out of it again into a sheet was a hopeless task. It would therefore be better to carry the diachylon in a gallipot, and spread it when required on thin cotton. Isinglass and court plaster are useful for keeping clean small hurts-the fluid obtained by boiling tendons in water spread on silk makes a very useful plaster-though, in trifling cases, we are in favour of letting the coagulated blood form the natural covering while the cut heals up beneath it.

Cerate, which may, on occasion, be made of beeswax and pure fat or oil, in such proportions as the temperature of the country may require, is very useful, spread on lint or linen, as a cooling ointment for sores that require to be kept soft.

Spongio pilene, a material composed of small fragments of sponge, attached to a backing of india-rubber sheeting, will be found valuable in applying hot or cold water to injured surfaces. It can be cut with readiness to any required size or shape.

During the Zambesi expedition, Dr. Kirk was provided with a good store of gutta-percha tissue, in sheets, for the purpose of covering poultices, moist applications, &c. The tissue should be cut much larger than the lint or other material, the moisture of which is to be confined. Other sheets were of various thicknesses, from that of writing paper up to cardboard or millboard, so as to give support, if necessary, as well as covering. He also carried gutta-percha splints for the leg or arm, properly fitted, for inside or outside, right or left; and cases might occur in which the possession of one of these, at the moment it was required, would be invaluable. They packed very easily one within the other, occupying little more room than so many flat sheets.

Millboard in strips, 18in. long and 6in. wide, for leg splints, or 15in. by 4in. for the arm, would stow easily, and by moistening would be easily moulded on the limb of a healthy person to the shape required. A few bandages, 3in. wide and 6ft. or 8ft. long, should be kept rolled up in the medicine chest; but if a store of calico is carried, there is no need to tear off more till they are wanted. (N.B. They should always be torn-not cut.) It is not to be expected that every traveller should carry or be able to use the formidable array of deadly looking keen-edged knives, of saws, and other instruments of torture; nevertheless, it would be prudent that a small selection should be taken, and we extract from a clever little work, "First Help in Accidents," the following list:-

Lint,

Compressors,

Rollers,

Sticking plaster,

Silk,

Small sponge,

Tourniquet,

Scissors,

Tenaculum,

Suture needles,

Lancet,

Dressing forceps,

Scalpel.

Small pocket cases containing all the requisite instruments are to be obtained of any surgical instrument maker. Among medicines quinine stands pre-eminent as an effectual, though perhaps not always an infallible, febrifuge; it is, however, so excellent a tonic that its moderate and occasional use may safely be recommended, and we do not know of a better remedy in case of fever. It is best dissolved in wine, if the traveller should be fortunate enough to be able to carry any. It may be given in rum or other spirit, which is more portable and likely to be at hand, and which is also useful for preserving insects; but if a man wants any peace while passing through most wild countries, or is doubtful of his own powers of self-denial, we would recommend him to convert all his wine into a strong solution of quinine before starting, and to do the same with half his rum or spirit of wine, having the rest strongly methylated for use, either in a spirit lamp or preservation of specimens. Let both these be labelled with a death's head and cross bones, such as is used by chemists in the Cape and other countries, where many of the native population cannot read, or do not understand, English, to signify poison.

A proportion of wine or spirit may, of course, be reserved for prudent and moderate use, as a glass, or even a bottle judiciously given may go very far to gain the good will of a native chief, or to induce either the proper servants or occasional assistants of the traveller to work heartily in helping him out of some difficulty. We have generally found a good pannikin of hot coffee accepted readily enough by the people after a long night journey; but there are times when a fire could not be made, and a drop of spirit, imparting a momentary sensation of warmth, even if it produces no other good effect, has, at least, that of showing that their employer cares for them, and does what he can to cheer them after their labour.

In most tropical rivers there are extensive deltas, intersected with netlike labyrinths of shallow impracticable channels, alternated with shoals, which the advanced guard of mangroves is just reclaiming from the sea, and where tangled, dank, and unwholesome wildernesses and swamps are formed, there fever, in its most deadly forms, is sure to prevail.

The delta of the Zambesi is also a place of danger from this cause; and persons of a full stout habit are said, and we believe with some reason, to be more liable to fever than others of a spare and meagre build; indeed, the Portuguese, when they see a well-framed athletic man, in prime condition, enter the river, prophetically mark him as one of the first victims. We have ourselves suffered severely and continuously from this malady, which generally came on with a cold shivering or ague, and was succeeded by the fever, accompanied by intense perspiration, prostration of strength, nausea and inability to eat, or even to retain the necessary medicine or cooling drink; an immoderately exaggerated idea of the length of time; short uneasy slumbers, disturbed by incongruous dreams-generally of some difficulty previously experienced-or total want of sleep, total failure of memory, and in bad cases delirium while awake.

When the "Pearl" first entered the Zambesi Dr. Kirk ordered that a glass of spirit with quinine in it should be served to the men every morning; and we would frequently, as the large doses administered were intensely bitter, make up the quinine into pills, with chocolate or cocoa paste, or sometimes place the quinine powder dry on the tongue, and then swallow a copious draught of water to wash it down.

We give, first, Dr. Livingstone's remedy for fever; but, useful and effective as it really is, we cannot say, from experience, that it is infallible; and the fatality among the gentlemen of the mission proves that we do not, as yet, possess a remedy for the fever that will supply the place of a sufficient and generous diet, total cessation of exposure to the malaria, and removal to a more elevated and healthy country, even though it be but a few hours' journey from the infected district. The doctor's receipt is as follows:-

"Linyante, 12th of September, 1855.

"A pill composed of three or four grains of resin of jalap, three or four of calomel, and an equal number of quinine; a drop or two of tincture of cardamoms to dissolve the resin to form the bolus.

"I have had a great many cases in hand, and never met with a single case of failure; it ought not to purge; the quantity of resin must be regulated to produce only a gentle movement, which, when felt, is accompanied by perspiration and a sound sleep. A check to this perspiration has, in my own experience, given rise to vomiting large quantities of pure blood."

In another letter:-

"We make a pill of equal parts of resin of jalap, calomel, rhubarb, and quinine; say for a powerful man eight grains of resin of jalap, eight grains of calomel, four or six grains of rhubarb, and four or six grains of quinine; make the whole into pills with tincture of cardamoms. This relieves the very worst cases in a few hours.

"We then give quinine till the system is affected with cinchonism, the calomel is removed at once from the system, and, curiously enough, decreasing doses serve. In some of us half a grain of the mass produces as much effect as twenty-four grains did at first."

A friend in Capetown, who had travelled in the Brazils, gave us the following receipt, used, we believe, by an Italian doctor; there he tells us it was efficacious, but we have not had opportunity to put it to the test:-

"To one bottle of water add 36grs. of sulphate of quinine, 2 teaspoonfuls of Epsom salts, 34 drops of sulphuric acid, and 40 drops of ether; this mixture is called antiperiodic water; a wine-glassful three times a day as soon as the first symptoms are perceived, and continued for three or four days after recovery. If delirious, an injection of 1 tablespoonful of vinegar to 10 of this water."

Warburg's fever drops are well spoken of. Very large doses of quinine are given in India and Africa, sixteen or twenty grains at a time; and we have frequently taken in powder as much as would lie upon a shilling.

Sometimes violent exertion, producing perspiration and exhaustion, if practised in time, may avert an attack. We have heard of a doctor visiting a man when the shivering fit was about to come on, who locked the door, mixed two glasses of stiff hot grog, put on the gloves, and engaged his patient in a boxing match, which, at least, for that time averted the fever.

We do not give our unqualified recommendation of this treatment; but we have often found that, during a period of severe and long sustained labour, we have remained in health, but that an attack of fever has accompanied the reaction induced by an intermission of the work.

Simple aperients should be taken; we have used Cockle's anti-bilious pills, salts, senna, or jalap; and their opposites in case of diarrh?a. With a little opium and a bit of carpenter's chalk, we have been able to give almost marvellous relief to a poor coloured woman in excruciating agony.

Take a good supply of Chlorodyne. Opium both in gum and tincture. A few drops of the latter, placed within the eyelids of those suffering from snow blindness, often prove of the greatest advantage; chloroform must be used with caution; still, in cases of great suffering, it is worth while to try it. We have known one exceedingly severe case of illness in which messengers had to be sent to every white man within 240 miles for medicines, and letters were written on the chance that some passing vessel might take them to a port whence by some other agency a supply of drugs might be forwarded.

Emetics, which are commonly sold in doses, white and grey, and of different degrees of strength.

Sudorifics-among which we have used Dover's powders as a convenient form.

Eyewashes.-Weak solutions, sulphate of zinc and diacetate of lead, or weak brandy and water, may be used.

It may be needful to carry a small quantity of blistering plaster-or rather the materials of which to make it-soft wash-leather, ointment of Spanish fly, &c., or mustard.

Tincture of arnica, used in the proportion of one part tincture to eight parts water, is a valuable application for strains or contusions.

Glycerine, or cold cream, may be used as cooling applications to irritated surfaces.

Effervescing powders.-The blue paper contains carbonate of soda, 30grs.; the white, tartaric acid, 25grs. 1lb. of carbonate of soda, and 13?oz. of tartaric acid, make 256 powders of each sort; or, 1?oz. of carbonate of soda, and 3oz. of tartarised soda, packed in blue, and 7drs. of tartaric acid, in white, will make twelve sets.

All salts must be kept in bottles closely stoppered, and only put in paper for immediate use.

Antiscorbutics.-Almost any vegetable; plenty of sugar; fresh fruit; dried tamarinds; good lime juice, vinegar, or citric acid; raw potatoes, with the strong earthy taste as fresh as possible; the pulp of the cream of tartar tree or Baobab in Africa, or of the Gouty-stem (Adansonia Gregorii) in Australia. Dr. Kane, in his Arctic voyages, found fresh raw meat a remedy.

It will be well for the traveller to limit his equipment to a few simple and really useful medicines, of which a sufficient supply for the maladies to be expected in the country he is bound for should be taken. A complicated assortment would serve only to confuse him, and it is better even to trust solely to nature than to tamper unskilfully with dangerous remedies.

Poisons and antidotes.

Poisoning, whether from accident or otherwise, should always be provided for, and it will be well to be supplied with a few antidotes. Some poisons are best ejected by vomiting-draughts of salt or mustard and warm water, half a wine-glassful of ipecacuanha wine, or a glassful of warm water with twenty or thirty grains of sulphate of zinc. Antimonial preparations, as tartar emetic, are too depressing, and not controllable.

In others, the action on the stomach may be diminished by mucilaginous or oily drinks, as milk, barley water, white of egg, and salad oil.

For poisonous acids use no emetics; alkaline remedies are proper. Soda or potash in water, given plentifully; carbonate of magnesia, Dinneford's solution, common whitening, or chalk in water, followed by some mucilaginous fluid, as milk or barley water.

Against alkalies, as potash, soda, &c., acids must be used-diluted vinegar, citric or tartaric acid, lemon juice or sour beer; soothing drinks as before, after the poison has been neutralised.

For metallic poisons an emetic may generally be tried.

For arsenic, avoid emetics. Take a mixture of milk and lime water, or soda water in equal quantities. Light magnesia diffused in water may be taken. Common animal charcoal may be tried.

For corrosive sublimate give white of egg and plenty of milk; if eggs are not at hand, use flour mixed with water.

Vegetable irritants.-Give an early emetic and demulcent drinks.

Narcotic poisons.-Opium. Give an emetic; pour cold water on the head and neck and shoulders; place mustard poultices on the calves of the legs or feet; give hot strong coffee and free air; keep the patient moving till drowsiness passes off.

Prussic acid in small doses.-Give ammonia or strong coffee; pour cold water on head and chest, rubbing dry with warm towels, and give free air; in large doses no treatment will avail.

Strychnine.-In Australia, South Africa, and some other countries strychnine is extensively used; and a correspondent thus writes in the Field concerning it:-"It sometimes happens that dogs are poisoned, accidentally or otherwise, by nux-vomica, or its alkaloid. It may not, therefore, be useless to inform the reader what treatment should be adopted in such a case. The poison acts very rapidly, tetanus comes on, and the dog soon dies, exhausted by the violence of the fits. If the poison have only been just taken, and no fits have occurred, the best remedy is tannin, in the form of pounded galls, or the areca-nut powder so much used in kennels. But if the dog be already seized with tetanus, the only remedy is the permanganate of potash. I have found, in several experiments on animals, that, when once the tetanic spasm has set in, permanganate of potash is the only remedy giving any chance of recovery; if administered in time it is most successful. Condy's fluid, now so much used in the stable and kennel, is the most convenient form for its administration. A wineglassful of Condy's fluid, slightly diluted, may be given. During the treatment the dog must be kept quiet, and touched as little as possible. This treatment, which has never yet been suggested (to my knowledge), I beg to offer to those readers who may be in need of it; but I cannot speak of its effects on the human subject."

Alcohol in excess.-Evacuation of the stomach, followed by hot coffee, external stimulants and friction.

Suffocation by gases, &c.-Removal to pure air, cold water on face and chest, artificial inducement of respiration, friction of surface, followed by hot coffee or brandy and water.

Animal poisons-stings of insects, snake-bites, &c.-If a sting remains in the wound, extract it, and apply a strong wash of ammonia in spirit or water, or, in its absence, warm oil; if faintness follows, some stimulant, as brandy and water, may be given freely for snake-bites; in addition to this cauterise the wound with nitric acid or a white-hot iron.

The trappers of America place great dependance on strong whisky; if great exertion can be maintained, so as to produce excessive fatigue and perspiration, the system may throw off the poison.

In the Cape colony an antidote for snake-bites is sold under the name of Croft's Tincture of Life. This was analysed, when we were in Grahamstown, by the faculty, and the ingredients they found were pronounced good; but there were others which the maker would not reveal. We have seen several testimonials as to its efficacy. The medical men, however, arranged a case somewhat larger than a fifty-likeness carte-de-visite album, containing lancet, ligature, cupping-glass, a bottle of ammonia, lint, and a piece of lunar caustic; but it was much too large to be carried about by any traveller in expectation of being bitten by a snake. We therefore took a small tin vesta match box, put a lancet, small bottle of ammonia, lunar caustic, in a stoppered bottle, lint, and ligature in it, and kept it in the waggon. We are happy to say we never had to put it to the test, for we were never bitten by a serpent. Sometimes a little judicious humouring of the patient does as much good as medicine.

In the Bushman country around Lake Ngami, where the entrails of the Ngwa or poisonous grub are used to give such fatal effect to the insignificant-looking arrows, a small plant with a yellow star-like flower, called the Kala-haetlwe, is used as an antidote. Fat is also rubbed into the wound and also given internally till the effect of the poison is neutralised.

The snake-stone of India, if it has any good qualities, seems to owe them entirely to its absorbent properties, and these would be more efficiently performed by scarification and the cupping glass.

Ipecacuanha, applied as a poultice, has been by some considered a most valuable antidote to snake-bites. This antidote is equally effective in the stings of scorpions and other venomous reptiles.

The fiction of the cup of rhinoceros horn, which caused all poisonous drink to effervesce and bubble over, is so firmly believed, that we have known a Cape trader offer to drink any poison we could give him out of such a cup; but we declined the experiment.

A preparation of the guaco plant is highly esteemed on the Spanish main as an antidote against bites of snakes of all kinds.

Acetic acid rubbed on the wound caused by the bite of scorpions or centipedes is very efficacious. In the absence of this, chewed tobacco is often made use of; but the natives are of opinion that the scorpion inflicting the wound crushed between two stones and laid on the injured part is a certain remedy, and, from what we have been enabled to learn from them on the subject, there seems to be some foundation for the belief.

Imaginary ailments of natives.

The imaginary ailments of natives are neither few nor far between; but it is not at all times wise to disregard them. We have known our followers come, night after night, with small sicknesses, when we had but a few doses of fever mixture left, and, by some chance or other, a little currie powder. Now, had we sent away a man with his "little sickness," he would have been really ill next morning. We therefore looked as wise as possible, felt his pulse, looked at his tongue, read a paragraph or two, and sent him to boil some water and bring it to us; we then carefully measured out a spoonful of currie powder, mixed it, saw him drink it off, and sent him to make himself as warm as he could till next morning.

Horse Medicines and Farrier's Stores.

If an expedition is about to be undertaken where the services of many horses or mules are required, a list of medicine stores should be furnished for them, which may be approximately as follows, the quantities being arranged for twenty animals for six months:-

Raw linseed oil, 4 galls.

Olive oil, 2 galls.

Spirits of nitre, ether, 4lb.

Nitrate of potash, 6lb.

Barbadoes aloes, 2lb.

Potassio tartrate of antimony, 1lb.

Camphor, 1lb.

Ginger, in powder, 6lb.

Palm oil, 6lb.

Tincture of opium, 4lb.

Spirits of ammonia, 4lb.

Spirits of turpentine, 1 gall.

Cantharides, in powder, 1lb.

Lard, 6lb.

Linseed meal, 8lb.

Compound tincture of myrrh and aloes, 2lb.

Calomel, 1oz.

Nitrate of silver, ?oz.

Sulphate of copper, 2lb.

Alum, 2lb.

Sugar of lead, 1lb.

Sulphate of iron, 2lb.

Powdered gentian, 4lb.

Prepared chalk, 6lb.

Stockholm tar, 10lb.

Tow, 6lb.

Old flannel and sheeting for bandages, two or three sponges, a packet of pins, a hank of fine twine, six pieces of coarse tape, a pestle and mortar, set of scales and weights, palate knife, graduated measure, a quire of whitey-brown paper, two pairs of scissors, one straight and the other curved; a drenching-horn, phleam, lancet (horse size), glyster syringe (quart size), and blood can. Hoof picker, searcher, drawing knife, buffer, pincers, shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, and set of hobbles. The use of these matters will be treated on under the head of "Veterinary Surgery."

Lamps, Lights, and Lanterns.

Lamps.

About the most simple and effective lamp we have ever seen is that used by the Portuguese at Tette, in their illuminations; it consists of a shallow pan of clay, as big as the palm of the hand, slightly baked, or, perhaps, merely sun-dried-to contain the oil-a spoonful of salt is tied up in a piece of rag, the ends being left just long enough for a wick, and this cheap and simple arrangement serves all the purposes of out-door illumination. Sticks about three feet high, with their upper ends cleft into three parts, which are kept open by the insertion of a wedge, are planted in lines along the streets, and the lamps supported on these, or ranged along the porticoes or fences of the various houses, burn brightly and steadily for many hours, defying even a tolerably stiff breeze to blow them out. The oil used is that of the ground nut, which, beside being cheap and plentiful, is so pure that it may be used for almost any purpose, scarcely an article of food in Tette being prepared without it; in fact, the nut itself, which may be eaten plain, roasted, treated as a "confect" in various ways, or infused as a substitute for coffee, contains so much essential oil that it will burn for more than a minute with as bright a flame as a good candle; when arranged one over the other on a stick or wire they give a good permanent light.

MAKE-SHIFT LAMPS.

It is often necessary, however, for the traveller to supply himself with light when the grease at his command is neither liquid enough to rise through the fibres of a wick, nor hard enough to be moulded into a candle. In this case, the wick should be allowed to rest on and overhang a little the sides of the vessel used as a lamp-a cup of earthenware, a common tin cap box, or even a bit of tin or sheet iron bent up will answer well enough; the flame soon heats the side sufficiently to melt a portion of the fat, and a constant supply is thus kept up as the wick requires it.

Almost anything will serve as a wick-a bit of old rag, or the flax-like fibres of the various plants used as cordage by the natives; strips of bark beaten to separate the fibres, or even small twigs may be used; rushes with enough of the outer covering removed to expose the pith, while on one side a strip of bark is left sufficiently strong to support it, are also worth looking to in case of need; but it is best to be provided with a sufficiency of cotton which is cheap, easily carried, and useful for many other purposes. If possible, a good supply of the best sperm candles, or others of material not likely to be affected by changes of climate, should be carried. On the Australian expedition, we used Price's vegetable wax candles; and some of these-after having twice crossed the line, gone round Australia and part of the Indian archipelago, and made the circuit of the globe-are now in Kew Museum in as good condition as when they were issued from the factory.

The common bull's-eye or police lamp is very useful if only required by one person for a specific purpose, such as reading off a sextant after observation of a star, but it does not diffuse light enough for general purposes. In fact, if wood is plentiful, a roaring fire will give greater facility for reading, writing, or such other occupations as are likely to employ a traveller's evening than anything else. If you want warmth, let your fire be on the ground and sit round it; if you want light to work by, make it on a slight elevation, say from eighteen inches to two feet high. If you want wood, and your native attendants, when called on, make excuses, or Jem tells Sambo and Sambo tells the old woman to fetch wood for the master, do not put yourself to the trouble of scolding them, but take the wood off their fire and put it on your own, and let them settle whose duty it is to bring more. Experto crede.

A horn lantern is good "to keep the light from going out;" but then, perhaps, the operator may desire that the light should not be so literally "kept in;" and it is said that a piece of rag dipped in salt and water, and wrapped round a candle, will answer the purpose of preserving it from extinction in windy weather without lessening its illuminating powers. This, however, requires continuous attention, in order that it may be cut down as the candle burns low. The Esquimaux lamp is a piece of soft stone with a slight groove along the front edge; in this is laid a wick of moss or other material, and, the heat imparted to the stone being quite sufficient to melt the fat laid on it, it is fed with very little trouble. One who has made a turnip lantern in his youth will seldom be at a loss to extemporise a shelter for his bit of candle. A calabash or gourd, with perforations to allow the passage of the light, covered or not with oiled calico or paper; a worn-out pannikin or preserved meat tin; the body of a quart bottle, the more transparent the better; or, what is best of all, one of the oblong tins in which fancy biscuits are generally sold, will answer admirably; the polished surface of the latter serving also as a powerful reflector. We had one of these slung from the roof of the waggon, the bowl of a broken ladle was secured in the bottom of it, and with a bit of cotton wick and a few pieces of hard fat, a light steady enough to work by was secured for the evening; the common forecastle lamp used on board our merchantmen is a useful form, and the shadowless railway lamp we found very servicable, as long as the glass could be preserved.

We have constructed a very powerful reflecting lamp from a large sheet of tin, nearly two feet in height, curved round so as to form half a cylinder, six or eight inches in diameter; about eight inches from its base, we made a shelf to sustain the oil lamp, and a socket to contain the candle if we should be fortunate enough to have one, and behind this we arranged a couple of sixpenny trade looking-glasses at an angle of 90° with each other, and by the light thus thrown forward we were able to write or sketch with facility during many hours of the weary night. (See p. 85.) A lamp commonly used in India is a tumbler half full of water with oil on the top, and a wick wrapped round a stone or bit of lead, with its end projecting above the oil; but it has this disadvantage, that rats may upset the glass while drinking the oil, carry off the burning wick, and so expose the house to great danger. A float may easily be made of bottle wire and three bits of cork, in which half an inch of wick is enough to last all night.

Candles.

It is often desirable to make candles, and for this purpose the hard fat and tallow of any animal that may be killed should be preserved, that is, if it can be spared from the no less important purpose of greasing the axles; or beeswax, if it can be obtained, may be used either in combination with it or separately. If you wish to make dip candles, take a sufficient number of strands twice the length you require, twist them slightly and double them, and let the parts twist together; pass a small rod through the "bights" of as many of these wicks as you find convenient, say half a dozen; take a bucketful of hot water, throw the fat or wax in, and it will soon melt and float upon the surface; let the wicks absorb as much as they will, straighten and let them harden; then, holding the rod by the end left for that purpose, dip them quickly to their full length, withdraw and allow them to cool, and repeat the operation till your candles attain the desired size. If you have fat enough you may have half a dozen or more sets of wicks and can keep on dipping in rotation, thus allowing each plenty of time to cool before its turn comes round again. If you aspire to mould candles, nothing is better for your purpose than a piece off the end of a gun-barrel-and very few African hunters make a journey without shortening some lengthy weapon by eight or ten inches. In this case, pass a small stick an inch or two in length through the bight of the wick, bring the end out through the "mould" and make it fast to another, or pass it through a gun wad or section of a cork, so as to stretch it fairly and evenly in the centre, and stop the lower end; then pour in the tallow or wax, and, when cool, warm the mould slightly and the candle will draw out. In some countries wood may be found sufficiently resinous to be used as candles, but a supply of sticks cut to a convenient size must be prepared and a rest of some sort contrived so that they may be easily placed in it or withdrawn when nearly burnt out; the angle they ought to make with the horizon varies with the quality of the wood, if very combustible they may be set nearly upright, if less so they must be more nearly horizontal.

All candles, however, waste rapidly unless screened from the wind, if the traveller can carry a spring burner, this inconvenience is in a great measure obviated; but often this is impossible, and he must make the best shelter he can with a bit of bent tin, a joint of bamboo, or whatever material may be at hand. If the candles have to be packed in bags where stowage is of importance, and cases must be thrown away, it is best to cut them in two, as the risk of breakage is much reduced by the diminution of their length; in cutting them the knife should be warmed slightly, as it divides them without chipping off fragments. In lighting the lower half, if you have wax vestas, and stick one of them in alongside the wick that has been cut, you avoid the necessity of cutting down the wax to expose the end, and so may save three quarters of an inch of candle.

Torches.

We have seen the Malays, in the Island of Timor, take a soft porous stick, or the pith of a peculiar rush, and then wrap round it a coating of beeswax, to serve as a torch or candle. The natives of the shores of British Columbia and Vancouver Island use a fish known as the Eulachon, or North-West Capelin, as a source of light. The leaf of the cocoa-nut palm possesses strong illuminating power. The pine knot and birch bark of North America and Canada are extensively used for giving light in deer-hunting, fish-spearing, and on other occasions. The bog deal of Ireland is also used. The Damaras, who have a custom of obtaining their fire only from that kept burning at the hut of their chief, carry with them dry flakes of "Kraal mist" or cattle droppings, ignited and held between the forks of a cleft stick; and the Indian matchlock men carry fire in the same way. The mussalchees or torch-bearers of Central India, who commonly accompany troops during night marches, use long sausage-shaped rolls of cotton cloth; the ends of these they from time to time moisten with oil poured from a vessel carried for the purpose. The hill guides usually employ large splinters cut from the Deodar cedar. In Mexico, the brilliant fire-flies are sometimes caught and used for giving a temporary light: the direction of a letter, or the points of a compass, may be read by them.

The sparks from a flint and steel, a bit of quartz, sulphuret of iron or agate, and a pocket knife, will give light enough to read the compass, or to form a night signal.

There are many very nice arrangements for the purpose of light giving and cooking, which may be obtained from any military outfitter; but their chief defect is, that they will only answer their purpose under tolerably convenient circumstances, and become useless when the real hard work of travel begins.

Samovar.

Travellers, both on sea and land, often require to cook a small allowance of coffee or tea when, from severity of weather, scarcity of fuel, or the impossibility of halting long enough, it is impossible to kindle a fire in any of the ordinary methods, and frequently when, from the pitching of a small vessel or the jolting of a waggon, it would be dangerous to use a spirit lamp, an Etna, or an uncovered fire of any kind. Under these circumstances we should think the principle of internal heat, as applied in the Russian samovar or tea urn, might be successfully adopted. This, with various modifications in outward form, may be described as a small furnace for burning wood or charcoal in that part which serves as the base of the urn, with a funnel or stove pipe, wide at the bottom, but tapering rather sharply upward, leading straight up through the water, and having at top a telescope joint, by which the funnel can be lengthened and the draught increased when requisite.

SAMOVAR.

Our own idea is to have an upright cylinder of copper tinned inside, and from about a couple of inches above the lower part of this an internal cone, like an inverted funnel, exactly fitting the cylinder at its lower edge, and tapering up to a small aperture at top. A double floor would be let into the cylinder about an inch from its base, so that it might be set upon a plank without danger from the fire. The cover would have a central hole for the funnel or smoke pipe to rise through; a small lip spout would serve to pour off the water, and ring handles, with chains long enough to obviate all danger, would serve to suspend it from the waggon roof, or from the beams of a small vessel, while others on either side would help to stay and steady it. A broad cap or roof of copper hooked on to links of the chains an inch or two above the end of the smoke pipe would prevent any possible risk from fire reaching any woodwork from which the samovar might be suspended.

* * *

Stopping leaky boats.

In traversing wild countries, or examining their coasts, lakes, or rivers, boats of some kind are indispensably necessary. The traveller may, perhaps, be fortunate enough to possess one or more sound and seaworthy. More frequently, however, it will be his lot to have either some sun-dried leaky craft, crank canoe, or unstable raft, on which to entrust his life and equipment, when his ingenuity and powers of resource must be exercised in order to successfully contend with the various shortcomings and failings he will certainly discover. If a boat be very leaky, and is so rotten as not to be reparable by ordinary means, cover the whole bottom with canvas to above the water line, and paint it, she will then be perfectly tight, and also very much strengthened and protected against external injury. Should the canvas even be left unpainted, it will be found to reduce the leakage very considerably. Turn the boat bottom upwards, take a breadth of canvas for each side, or, if one breadth be not wide enough, increase it as much as necessary by stitching on another. Lay one edge of this against the keel, just below the garboard streak; fasten it with copper tacks, or if with iron pump tacks, dip them previously in thick white paint, varnish or boiled oil, to prevent them rusting the canvas. Wet the canvas, and stretch it tightly, tacking it on the stem and stern post, so as just to cover the insertion of the planking; then stretch the upper edge to the moulding, just below the wash-streak, and nail it on there. It might, if necessary, be carried right up to the gunwale; but, in this case, it must be defended by a moulding or ribband of plank from chafing against the side of a vessel or pier. In the case of a gig, or long sharp boat, the canvas will give or stretch sufficiently to adapt it to the required form; but in one with a short bluff bow and stern, it must be fitted either by neatly folding the parts necessary to be reduced, or by cutting and stitching it to the shape required.

Make-shift outrigger.

If a small boat crowded with passengers has to leave a wreck in a heavy sea, she may be preserved from sinking or overturning by lashing across the gunwales a couple of oars (cut, if there is time for it, to a suitable length), and fastening to them, outside the boat, four small water-casks or breakers; these would somewhat impede her progress, but buoyancy and safety, and not swift sailing, are the chief requisites in leaving a wreck. Breakers lashed under the thwarts, or bow and stern sheets, are sometimes used; but, though they impart buoyancy to a water logged boat, they take up room, and do not give the additional stability which is afforded when they are placed outside.

BOAT WITH BREAKERS OR SMALL CASKS AS OUTRIGGERS.

Rafts.

The cumbrous mass of spars, water-casks, and other stores, which want of stowage under hatches often forces small vessels to carry upon deck, may easily be converted into a perfectly safe and buoyant raft, ready for instant use on an emergency, by the following arrangement of the lashings.

The spars, amongst which will generally be found one fit to make a topmast, another for a lower yard, and, perhaps, one or two more of equal length, are laid fore and aft on either side the main hatch; the water-casks, perhaps half a dozen on each side, are lashed to them; while the space between is occupied by the long boat, and, perhaps, one or two casks of meat or other stores, the whole being secured to the deck; but all this floating power is neither connected in itself, nor easily detachable from the sinking vessel.

It would not be much more difficult, when securing the row of casks and spars on either side the hatch, to connect all these by short spars lashed across the ends, as shown in the engraving, with a couple more crossing near the bow and stern of the long boat, and bearing others passing fore and aft beneath her bilge, to which she might be secured by lashings perfectly independent of the gripes by which she is fastened to the deck. Indeed, the chief requisite is to keep all the lashings that connect the parts perfectly clear of those which hold the raft to the vessel, so that, in case of need, it could at once be cut clear, and allowed to float bodily off from the sinking hull.

THE SPARS AND WATER-CASKS CARRIED ON DECK WITH THE LONG BOAT, USED AS A RAFT.

We have stated the absolutely necessary points as simply as possible; but many improvements might easily be suggested, such as the four casks, at the ends, being pointed like conical buoys, so as to offer less resistance to progress through the water; or that in two or more of the aftermost casks a quantity of salt or preserved meat, biscuit, or groceries should be kept in store for any emergency.

The smaller spars, of which there are generally plenty on board, might be crossed upon this framework, so as to make a platform, and a studding-sail spread over would prevent small things dropping through, or help to support the crew or passengers.

The boat, however leaky or battered, would always be a place of security and comparative comfort for the ladies or children, as the power of floatation would be in the spars and casks. We believe the Spaniards always endeavour to secure a boat on any raft they are obliged to make, using her, no matter how much she may be stove or broken, as a place of rest or refuge for the helpless or the weary.

It would be superfluous to give directions for the rigging of a mast or steering apparatus. Seamen in emergencies would improvise these according to the means at hand. Two or three small spars set up as a triangle would carry sail, where, perhaps, a mast could not be stepped; and the oars of the long boat, assisted by the trimming of such sail as could be set, would be most likely the readiest appliances for steering. Sometimes the "bridge" of a paddle steamer is made like a caisson, and shipped in grooves, so as to float off should the vessel sink. Small craft trading in the Indian islands, which carry a quantity of bamboo as small spars, are thus provided with a natural substitute for life-buoys, and a material for constructing rafts, or rendering boats, though leaky as so many sieves, perfectly unsinkable. Rafts of the large hollow stems of the bamboo are frequently used by fishermen in the Indian archipelago.

Life-belts.

It may, perhaps, be of little use to suggest that before a vessel leaves port attention should be given to the means of saving life should she go down at sea. The possible foundering of a seaworthy vessel is about the last thing a sailor thinks of; he trusts more to his presence of mind and ready application of the means at hand. Nevertheless, provision against danger would cast no imputation on their manliness. The law compels a proportionate number of boats to the complement of crew or passengers. Some owners provide cork belts or jackets for the men, with mattrasses, pillows, or cushions of cork, for the berths or sofas in the cabin; and it would be well if every passenger making a sea voyage were to provide himself, and each of those depending on him, with a life-belt, either of cork or of inflatable material, and likewise see that these were not stowed away in chests below the hatches, but kept at hand in the berths so as to be available when wanted; and also that their use was perfectly understood by those for whom they were provided.

We have seen a waistcoat with inflatable lining carried far into the interior by one of the boldest elephant hunters in South Africa; and it is stated that, after the sinking of the ill-fated steamer "Arctic," some of the passengers provided with belts floated on the surface of the Atlantic for some days, giving, with a kind of desperate humour, the names of different hotels to the piece of floating wreck at which they had "put up last night," or intended to do so for the next.

It is a pity that none of the waterproof materials at present in use are comfortable in ordinary wear, so that some common article of dress, as a neck-tie, a belt, or sash, might be made so as to be inflatable when an accident occurs.

Of all that we know at present, we should say the most effective, simple, and secure from damage, is the ordinary cork jacket, of the pattern supplied by the Life-boat Institution; it is sufficiently buoyant, does not impede the exertions of the wearer, and cannot be damaged by collision with rocks or other hard objects.

Life-buoys.

Perhaps the circular life-buoy now in common use is as good as any, but it requires some address and strength on the part of the swimmer to get it over his head to its proper place beneath his arms; it also lies low on the water when thrown overboard, and if at any distance is not easily seen by the swimmer or by the boat's crew who eventually go to his assistance.

In the navy a breaker or small cask is used, with a staff six or eight feet long passed through it, the lower end projects say three feet, and is loaded with lead; the upper will stand from four to six feet above the water, carrying a small red flag by day, or a port-fire by night.

The slings of the buoy are brought up to the taffrail and looped over a small pin, which is withdrawn by pulling the trigger of a gun lock, and a quick match led to this at night serves at the same time to ignite the port-fire, so that the swimmer, the boat's crew, and the commander of the vessel, have a conspicuous object to make for and are so prevented from losing each other.

In larger vessels, we believe, two breakers are used, connected by saddle-shaped iron bars; these enable one, or perhaps two men to sit, with their shoulders considerably above the surface; while beckets of rope all round would enable a greater number, say the crew of a capsized boat, to support themselves with a fair chance of safety. The size, however, of a life-buoy must always be limited. It is mostly required to save one person who has fallen overboard; and, though perhaps sufficient to support more, it should never be so large as to be dangerous or inconvenient when taken into the boat put out in a heavy and dangerous gale to the rescue.

Several fathoms of small line should be and often are attached to the buoy, so that if it is let go in time the swimmer may catch it, and be saved without the necessity of lowering a boat. We have seen a "life line" of coir or cocoa-nut fibre, which is very buoyant, successfully veered away to an overladen and endangered boat at a considerable distance, when a hempen rope, which sinks by its own weight, would have been of no service.

THE CALABASH FLOAT, MAKORO OR MAKARA, OF CENTRAL AFRICA.

Calabash float.

Nearly similar in principle to this last-named life-buoy is the calabash float, described by Dr. Barth as being used by the natives of Central Africa; it is simply a bar or plank of light wood, so laced to the bottom of two large calabashes, that a man sitting on the bar, as he would upon a saddle, will sink about waist deep, and may use his hands to paddle himself across the stream.

Reed boat.

Our illustration shows how any buoyant article in the traveller's possession might be used in this manner. The boxes shown on pp. 8 and 9 are designed expressly for such emergencies. Small water "vatjies," barrels, or tin cans, wooden boxes, even though somewhat leaky, wrapped in canvas or two or three thicknesses of calico, which need not be cut, would become sufficiently tight for a short voyage. To make a reed boat, take reeds of any length you wish, a foot or two more than half the length of your boat, lay them lengthwise on level ground, with their small ends toward the ends of your intended boat, and their butts overlapping each other by a foot or two; take cord or other material for lashing, and interweave it with the reeds till the part in the centre resembles a flat cheese-mat, then bend it round the hoop which you intend for the midship frame. Insert smaller frames toward each end, and finally gather up the ends of the reeds into a point, cover this with some waterproof material, oiled calico or canvas, &c., or canvas simply pasted with flour and water, and you will have a boat buoyant and more or less durable according to the strength of the material.

REED BOAT.

About 1844 we made such a boat in Cape Town, using what are there called Spanish reeds, which run between 10ft. and 15ft. in length, three quarters or an inch in their greatest diameter, tolerably strong and very buoyant; these were lashed on wooden barrel hoops with a light deal keel and gunwale, and covered with two thicknesses of oiled calico. There was no leakage, and our little skiff was so light that with the assistance of a friend we easily carried her to and from the house in which she was built. We often ventured beyond the shipping anchored in Table Bay, our guns being secured by lanyards to the boat in case of accident.

Reed raft.

On parts of the Nile where reeds abound, the natives make them up into bundles of perhaps 8in. or 10in. in diameter at the larger end, and tapering almost to nothing at the smaller; three or four of these are fastened side by side, their points are made to curve up a little, and they form a portable and convenient vessel for crossing the river or conveying small cargoes of grain or other produce to market. The stoutest part of the fan-shaped leaf of the doum palm is used as a paddle. The float is not a heavy load for one man, when carried overland, and one supported by a forked stick, or three or four with their larger ends set on the ground and the smaller resting against each other, form very good sun-shades, or huts to protect the inmates against more inclement weather.

REED RAFT AS USED ON THE NILE.

We have seen very useful and commodious rafts made by cutting very large quantities of marsh reeds, fastening them up roughly in bundles, laying these side by side, and then arranging another layer of bundles across the lower tier. A few vines, or twisted reed bands, serve to keep the bundles in their places, whilst a thick layer of loose reeds on the top makes a level surface for the traveller and his baggage to rest on. As the lower reeds become saturated with water others can be cut, and added to the top. Long river voyages, floating with the stream, have been accomplished on rafts of this description. Bamboo canes, when they can be obtained in sufficient number, form excellent rafts. They are also extremely valuable as outriggers, and outrigger beams for canoes, adding greatly to their stability.

In other parts, where reeds are not so common, floats of wood are used as an assistance to swimmers.

Floats.

When swimming our horses over many of the wide and rapid rivers of Central India, the natives who were employed in guiding the animals, first swam across with them without any artificial assistance, and then returned for others with billets of a peculiarly light wood held between their left arms and sides, under the shoulders; with these appliances, they floated with extraordinary buoyancy, and made rapid progress across the stream.

The inflated skins or intestines of animals, hollow gourds, earthen pots, bladders, or bundles of bark, may be used as aids in crossing rivers where canoes or rafts cannot be constructed.

Cattle boat.

On some of the great Indian rivers, large dish-shaped boats are used for the conveyance of horses or cattle. A boat of this description is very quickly made by first forming a basket-shaped framework of bamboo, here and there interwoven; this is securely lashed together with strips of raw hide, twisted cane, or common cord. When completed, the basket, or frame, is turned upside down, on the ground, pegged fast with hooked pegs cut from the branches of the nearest tree, and then covered with raw bullock hides, which are sewn fast to the frame, and to each other, grease being well rubbed into the seams. When complete, the boat is not unlike a common tea-saucer-measures between fourteen and fifteen feet in diameter, and is about two feet eight inches deep; made to these dimensions, the hide boat will safely carry from three to four tons of cargo. There is no possibility of upsetting it. When horses or bullocks have to be conveyed in contrivances of this kind, it will be necessary to lay branches of trees, and a good layer of reeds, or sedge grass, on the bottoms, in order to prevent the animals from thrusting their hoofs through the hides. The water-draught of hide boats is surprisingly slight, from five to eight inches being sufficient to float one with a full load on board. Long-handled shovel-shaped paddles are used to propel them with, and a store of raw hide, and some tallow, and an eyed awl, or large needle, for patching, enables the boat voyager to execute with expedition all the repairs his leather craft may need. All hide-covered boats, or floats, should be occasionally placed bottom upwards, on shore, to dry, in order to render the skins more durable.

Coracle.

The coracle, so much used by Welsh fishermen, is made much after the same fashion. A smooth level piece of turf being chosen, the frame-sticks, just such as coopers use for making into hoops, are bent and interwoven until the requisite form of the frame has been arrived at, the bottom being upwards. The edge, which afterwards becomes the gunwale, is formed by making a border of hazel-wand basket-work, the ends of the frame-sticks are trimmed off even with this, and a covering of Russia duck, or light canvas, is neatly sewn over all. The coracle is then paid over with tar, or some other water-proofing material; one thwart, or seat, is secured from each end to the framework, holes are made in this for a leather strap to pass through, which enables the fisherman to carry his coracle on his back. A single-bladed paddle, like a baker's oven pile, is used to paddle with. Some considerable practice is needed to enable a new hand to conduct, or, as it is called, drive a coracle-not a little caution is required in both getting in or out. It is best, if possible, to depart from some shallow sand-spit, or gravel bed, where the coracle may be shoved off into deeper water, after the tyro has taken his seat, and established the proper balance. In landing, it will be well to observe the same caution until practice and experience give the confidence and dexterity which they alone can confer. There is a peculiar stroke of the paddle much used in coracle driving, to which the canoe man seldom has recourse. This is gained by turning the left arm round the handle of the paddle, until the hand is a short distance above the blade, and the shaft rests against the shoulder. The paddle blade is then worked in a figure-of-eight direction.

SKIN BOAT.

Skin boat.

The size of skin or canvas-covered boats will usually be determined by the available amount of skin or covering material. Any waggon ox requires 8ft. of room to work in, and his skin would give a square of leather of very little over 6ft.; the African buffalo would be about the same, the eland somewhat larger, the black or brindled gnoo, the koodoo, and some of the larger antelopes, rather less. Suppose you have two ox skins; cut them straight across where the neck is at its widest, and let the natives or waggon-drivers stitch them together with strong sinews or thongs of hide, using a round awl or piercer, to make a round hole that will close again, and not a sharp-edged one that will cut the hide and so leave holes that will afterwards become leaks. The sheet should be kept damp, not wet, by spreading ox-dung or damp earth upon it till the frame is ready. Suppose it now to be 12ft. long and 6ft. wide; you may make your boat of from 3ft. to 4ft. in width, and 10ft. in length and 2ft. deep. If you care to have definite stem and stern posts, it is very likely that poles may be found with branches projecting at the required angle, but practically it is best to let them curve more or less gradually into the line of the keel, and for this purpose to choose two long straight poles; bend their thick ends round a tree to rather more than the requisite curve, as they will always straighten again; then, having chosen a flat piece of stiff ground, make two holes 10ft. apart, for the thick ends of your poles to rest in, bend down their thin ends, let them overlap, the farther the better, and lash them together; then take another of about 8ft. (or a foot longer on each side than the width of the skin), and having curved this, stick the ends into the ground, about 3? ft. or 4ft. apart, and lash it where its centre passes under the keel; do the same with two others, 18in. on either side, and you will have the three midship frames; take two poles for each gunwale, join them by overlapping their thin ends as before, lash them to these central frames, so far from the keel that the edge of the skin will just cover them, bend them till they come together at the bow and stern, let them cross each other by a few inches, lash them tightly, and do not be in a hurry to cut their ends too closely; the curve they take will guide you in the insertion of the other frames. As you come nearer to the bow and stern, forked branches of the proper angle may be advantageously used, and along the sides, where the rowlocks come, forks may be left on the extremities of the ribs to serve for them; a fork may also be lashed in at either end for steering or sculling. Lay two or more ribbands or bilge pieces along each side; fasten in such boards or poles as you have for thwarts, and, when the whole is firmly lashed together, spread over it the prepared hide and stitch it all round to the pole that serves for gunwale, the hair, if you have not already scraped it off, being inwards; grease plentifully while it is still wet, and then let it dry; look carefully to the seaming; give this as much grease as it will absorb, or you can afford; and when it is quite stiff, saw off the superfluous timber ends, not too close; turn it up, and it is ready for use: never let your boat lie in the water longer than is absolutely necessary, and turn it bottom upwards whenever you haul it ashore. The quagga hide is proverbially rigid; and we should think that if taken off by merely making one slit along the belly, distending with dry sand and letting it harden in the sun, it would make a tolerably safe boat in smooth water for one person, without any other fitting.

We have heard of mules or transport animals being killed when water carriage became available; their flesh jerked for future provision, and even their ribs pressed into service to do duty without even a change of name in the canoes for which their hides served as coverings.

Russian cargo boat.

In the United Service Museum is a very carefully-constructed model of a Russian cargo boat from the Aleutian Islands, Commander Pike, R.N., the donor, states that it carries 3? tons of fur sealskins. No metal is used in it, the wooden frame is pegged or lashed together, and covered with walrus hide. No dimensions are given; but, as very nearly three feet are required for one oarsman, it is probable that the boat would be 25ft. long and 8ft. wide near the stern; it will be noticed that there are but single thole pins, and therefore grummets of rope or iron must be fastened on the oars.

Esquimaux boats.

The other boat is the oomiak, or woman's canoe, of the Esquimaux. The frame is made of drift wood and bone, often in very small pieces, but so tightly pegged and lashed together with hide thongs, that the compound seems fully as strong as a single piece; it is very neatly covered with sealskin.

RUSSIAN AND ESQUIMAUX SKIN BOATS

The method of constructing the frames of both these varies but little from that we have just described, and we think will be made sufficiently plain by the drawings copied by permission from the models in the Museum.

The kayak, or man's canoe, is longer, sharper, and narrower, and is completely covered with sealskin, with the exception of a circular aperture in the centre, and from the edges of this a skin comes up so as to tie tightly round the waist of the daring walrus or seal hunter, so that not a drop of water can enter his little vessel; while even if by any accident she should capsize, a vigorous stroke of the double-bladed paddle will suffice to right her; the harpoons or other weapons cannot possibly be lost, for bladders are attached to the lines of those prepared for use; while the reserves are not cast adrift till they are wanted. Marvellously ingenious as these fur-clad boat-builders are, their frail craft are so difficult to handle that no ordinary explorer can, without long practice, hope to use them with much success. Still there are many points connected with their construction well worthy of imitation.

The small sledge in the background has a screen of skins suspended across it, in which a hole is made for the seal-hunter to fire through.

Dug-out canoes.

Canoes, hewn and dug from the solid tree trunk, are general and valuable; and there are few portions of the earth where forest trees grow to the requisite size that dug-out boats of some kind are not in use. The natives of British Columbia construct very large and powerful boats from the trunks of the huge cedar trees found in that country. To the fortunate possessor of the axe, the adze, the gouge, and the mallet, the formation of a dug-out canoe is a matter of comparative ease; but to the Indian, unprovided with efficient tools, it is a task of no ordinary magnitude, still he undertakes it boldly, falling back on shifts and expedients to aid him in his toil. With such rude implements as he may chance to be possessed of, he fashions the exterior, flattens the surface of the log, and hews out the bow and stern; then fire, kept within due bounds by the assistance of clay, is brought to bear on the mass of timber, and as the wood ashes form, and the wood becomes charred, a sharpened stone or thick sea-shell is used to remove the mass and expose a fresh surface. By dint of labour, patience, care, and perseverance, the shell of the boat is at length formed, but lacking the curves and contour needed to render it stable and seaworthy. Indian ingenuity again steps in to meet the difficulty. The boat is filled to the brim with water, a huge fire is lighted, and a number of stones heated to redness. These are one by one dropped into the unfinished canoe, until the water is raised almost to the boiling point; then when the wood is under the full and softening influences of the heated water and steam, transverse bars of wood are driven in one after the other, until the requisite breadth of beam and bilge are gained. The water is then removed, and the canoe allowed to dry with the bars in it, when the shape thus given remains as long as the boat lasts. The removal of the bars and a little polishing up renders the canoe fit for sea. It is not uncommon for craft of this description, manned by crews amounting sometimes to as many as thirty, to brave the turbulent and formidable seas of the Pacific Ocean, in pursuit of the sea-otter, fish, &c.

We have seen many canoes of this description on the large rivers of Central India, Australia, and on the Zambesi. The aborigines of Australia are also in the habit of using bark canoes of the most primitive form of construction. A sheet of bark of suitable size is stripped from the nearest tree, the ends are guarded by little walls of clay, and with a rude stick for a paddle, and a lump of moistened clay for a fire-place, Corry, armed with his unerring spear, starts on a fish-hunting expedition on the pond or river.

Models of platform boat.

During the years 1863 and 1864, while enjoying the hospitality of our late friend Charles John Andersson, the chief, as he may be called, of the persevering explorers of South-West Africa, we devoted considerable attention to the construction of models of boats for the purposes of discovery and river navigation, and of substitutes for them. The first essential in the case before us was that of portability of the boat or of the materials to make it; the second, facility of construction when it reached the water, equal facility of separation into its original parts at any interruption of the river course, and also of reconstruction after it had been carried to a point where navigation could be resumed. Another, and not less important condition, was, that the materials should be such as were obtainable either in Damaraland, or, at farthest, from some of the vessels that occasionally called at its bays or harbours from Cape Town. The conversion of the usual waggon gear into a float will be presently treated on; and we will now describe the model we constructed for our boat, suggesting to explorers that when they find themselves under the necessity of building, they will save much time, trouble, and anxiety as to the result of their labour, by proceeding nearly in the same way.

DOUBLE BOAT OF IRON OR COPPER CONVERTIBLE INTO A SINGLE BOAT WHEN NEEDED.

In the first place, we had decided on the use of sheet metal, plain or galvanised iron in sheets of 6ft. by 2ft., or copper of 4ft. by 2ft., with screwed bolts and nuts in either case of exactly the same metal as the sheets, so that any galvanic action should be impossible. Next, the framework must be of wood; and as to form, it was absolutely necessary that the boat should have beam and buoyancy enough to launch, without fear of submersion through any rapid that had water enough to bear her clear of rocks, and was not steep enough to be considered as a waterfall. We purposed to put the materials together on the spot; and, therefore, their weight only, and not the dimensions of the boat, were taken into consideration with regard to waggon carriage.

For the mere purpose of passing from the head of the river navigation to the sea, and thus proving that such navigation was possible, nothing more than a single boat would be required. But for observing, mapping, sketching, or otherwise improving to some useful result the various opportunities of the journey, sufficient room must be provided for the voyager to work comfortably on deck instead of sitting cramped up in the stern-sheets, and we, therefore, decided on making ours capable of being used as a double boat when the breadth of the river permitted it.

The advantage of being able to use each part when separate, as an independent boat, so that the sharers in the voyage might trace separate branches of the river, had to be balanced against the disadvantage of having to take each of these singly through rapids, which their dimensions might not insure their passing in safety, and also against the fact that if the "double" is formed of two perfect boats, they cannot attain great speed either in sailing or rowing, from the fact that the volume of water admitted between the stems, which may be, for example, 8ft. apart, must be compressed as it passes the midship section, to 4ft. or 5ft., according to the breadth of beam of the boats, and will again have to expand as it passes the gradually increasing space between their "run," or after section. And the loss of power thus expended in "heaping up water," although imperceptible at a low speed, would become enormous if a higher rate were attempted. Therefore we made our model so that when not required as a double, she should become one single yawl or whale boat of 30ft. in length, and 6ft. beam, with 2?ft. internal depth in midships, rising to nearly 4ft. at either end to enable her to shoot a tolerably strong rapid without shipping water; the two sections were therefore each made like half a whale boat, the outer sides having their proper curve and the inner being perfectly flat, so that when used doubly the water might pass without resistance between them, and when singly they might be clamped together as one boat by screwed bolts through the keel, stem, stern posts, and the inner gunwales.

Our first care was to seek out a block of soft, fair grained wood, 30in. long and 3in. wide, and to shape this truly to the form required for one half section of our boat. We next provided a sufficiency of planking, ribbands, &c., also on a scale of 1in. to the foot, and then cut out from the thinnest tin case linings, forty pieces of 6in. by 2in., to represent our sheets of iron.

The dimensions of our boat had been previously so arranged that in the midship section the depth of nearly 2 ft. on the flat side should leave rather more than 4ft. of the iron available to form the curve on the outer, necessary to give a half beam of 3ft.

In building our model we adopted slightly different plans with each of the two sections. In that intended for the starboard side we laid along the flat or inner side of our block or wooden mould a batten, 1/4in. square (representing one of 3in.) and 24in. long (each inch being understood to represent 1ft.); to this we fitted the stem and stern post, each 6in. in length, both exactly alike, curving and raking forward and aft like those of a whale boat, so as to have an actual height, before the keel was added, of 3?in. We then laid along the top of the flat side the inner gunwale 1in. deep, but as this would be an impediment to the rowers when the sections were clamped together to form a single boat, we cut out a piece (marked A, p. 106) ?in. deep and 18in. long, so as to be removable at pleasure, the remaining quarter then forming the stringer on which the thwarts would afterwards be laid, the bottom of the three-quarter piece (A) having checks cut in it to allow it to fit over them. We then took the piece of tin representing the midship sheet, and drawing a line across it, 1?in. from its edge, bent it over the keelson, bolting the short end to the thwart stringer, and bringing the longer one of 4?in. round the curve to the outer gunwale; nine sheets were required aft and nine forward of this, and the only difference in laying them was that, as we proceeded forward, the edge of each sheet overlapped by nearly 1/4in. the one behind it, while in working aft, the edge of each had to be inserted beneath that which lay before it. When the curves of the stem and stern were reached, the sheets had to be cut to the required form instead of being bent, and were bolted in their proper places. The outer gunwale, ?in. thick and ?in. deep, was now laid on and bolted to the metal sheets; another batten, ?in. wide, was laid from stem to stern along the bilge, and the keel, ?in. thick and deep, was fitted in its proper place and bolted through the metal to the keelson.

Our half boat was now sufficiently firm to be taken off the mould. A short stringer of 18in. was laid internally upon the floor, and another the whole length along the inside on which to lay the outer end of the thwarts; and timbers, ?in. thick, were bolted in with their heads projecting 1in. above the gunwale, so as to receive cross-beams of ?in. in thickness and 15in. long, by which the sections were kept apart when used as a double boat. We considered it better to secure the beams by cross-lashings than by bolts, which, if the boats worked much in troubled water, would probably rend the parts they served to connect. Along the gunwales, at short intervals, we intended to use lighter cross-beams, probably of bamboo, that is if it were procurable; but having carried out our model sufficiently to establish the general efficiency of our principle, we did not think it needful to spend time in completing every little detail, and this called forth the free but friendly criticism of Mr. Charles Bell, the Surveyor-General of the Cape colony, whose valuable and practical advice we take the liberty of giving (see p. 115).

The only difference of plan adopted in building the other or port section was that we built the whole of the inner or flat side of plank ?in. thick, by which we were enabled to cut 1?in. off each sheet, and this method in building a full-sized boat would have enabled us to use copper sheets of 2ft. by 4ft. instead of iron of 2ft. by 6ft.

THE SECTIONS CLAMPED TOGETHER AS A SINGLE BOAT, OR USED WITH CONNECTING BEAMS AS A DOUBLE.

Full-sized platform boat.

In building a full-sized boat on this model, our plan would be to make the flat side all of ?in. plank, with the stem, stern post, and keelson all fast in their proper positions, and the keel left slightly apart, so as to allow the sheets of metal, whether iron or copper, to be inserted between it and the keelson. Then, laying the whole flat on its side, we would cross cut with a fine tenon saw our wooden model into eight pieces of equal length, and carefully enlarging the section of each length would make as many temporary frames, and set them upon the flat side, cutting checks in them to let in the stringers, which when bent down to the flat at either end would very effectually give the form of the boat. We would then fit the ribs, keeping them as light as possible with due regard to strength, cutting them, if requisite, out of wood selected with the proper natural curve; or, preferably, using flexible wood, such as ash, in pieces 2in. broad, and ?in. in thickness, and placing them not quite 2ft. apart, so that the overlapping edges of the sheets might coincide with the ribs, and the bolts might pass through them and also through the inner stringers, and the outer ribbands and gunwales at all their points of intersection. The ends of seven of these ribs, at nearly equal distances (as at sheets 2, 5, 8, 10, 13 and 16, on p. 106), we would leave standing six or eight inches above the gunwale, and about four inches from each we would set up another of equal height, so that the cross-beams might lie between them when required, and be secured by lashings passing down to the first stringer (p. 110), or so that when the two parts were connected as a single boat they might serve as rowlocks. Short struts from the foremost pair of these would give great additional stability to the masts.

In laying the deck, we should by all means endeavour to avoid injuring the planks by boring needless holes in them, as they might on an emergency be required for building a smaller boat. We should, therefore, lash them with raw hide to the foremost and aftermost crossbeams, and then laying lighter beams across near two or more of the intermediate ones, fasten them down where requisite by strips of the same material (p. 110).

For connecting the two sections, so as to form a single boat, we should use screwed bolts ?in. thick, and 7in. long, passing at intervals of about 16in. through both keels, stems, stern posts, and inner gunwales, thus firmly clamping both the flat sides together. The two removable portions of the inner gunwale (marked A) previously mentioned would, in this case, be unshipped to allow the oars free play, as in illustration on opposite page, and on page 106.

Copper is the only metal we should wish to use or recommend to others, and all fastenings used with it must be of the same metal. We recommend in this case, screwed bolts and nuts, presuming that the boat would be built for a journey, the exigencies of which might oblige the traveller frequently to take her to pieces and rebuild her; but as our own means were at that time inconveniently limited, we made a calculation of the comparative cost of plain and galvanised iron and of wood.

The mode of setting the sails, spreading the awning, &c., will be sufficiently clear from the engraving (p. 106).

Our little model, when tried upon the flooded flats at Walvisch Bay, sailed "like the wind," but had a tendency to bury the lee-bow, which was easily remedied by ballasting the weather quarter; an oar was the readiest and most convenient means of steering.

Estimate of material if the boat be built of copper, the flats or inner sides being of plank:-

￡ s. d.

40 sheets copper, 2ft. by 4ft., 1lb. to the foot,

at 1s. 6d. per lb., or 12s. each 24 0 0

200 square-headed bolts, 1/4in. thick (with nuts),

?in. grip for the skin and ribs, 27 0 0

180 ditto ditto ?in. thick, 1?in. grip for skin, ribs, and stringers,

180 ditto ditto 3in. grip, for ribs, stringers, and timber heads,

90 ditto ditto 6in. grip, for keel and

keelson and for clamping the two sections

together when used as a single boat,

Equal to 650 bolts, averaging perhaps 10d. each

4lb. copper rivets, assorted sizes, for repairs 0 12 0

6lb. copper nails, from 1in. to 3in. 0 18 0

1lb. rooves, for clinching nails 0 3 0

2 red deals, straight and clean, 21ft. long, 9in. by 3in., cut into six pieces of 3in. square, of which five will suffice to make the two keels and keelsons; the remaining piece would cut four stringers ?in. thick. (If these deals could be procured 24ft. long, four pieces would do this, and there would be no necessity for scarfing.) 4 0 0

3 deals of 21ft. each, cut into four ?in. planks; and 1 deal, cut into one 1?in. and two ?in. planks, would give fourteen ?in. planks, of which nine would suffice for the two flat sides, two for the gunwales, 4?in. wide, and three with the spare piece mentioned above for the stringers and ribbands, while the 1?in. plank, by careful adaptation of the requisite curves, would cut for the four stems and stern posts,

Or equal to 6 deals, say

2 galls. boiled linseed oil, in tin cans of 1 gall. each 0 12 0

4 galls. raw linseed oil, in tin cans of 1 gall. each 0 16 0

28lb. white lead, in iron kegs of 7lb. each 0 14 0

14lb. red ditto ditto ditto 0 7 0

(The cans and kegs will be useful as cooking or water vessels when emptied.)

30lb. resin 0 10 0

6 paint-brushes and tools assorted 0 6 0

Tinsmith's small shears or snips 0 4 6

Engineer's hammer 0 4 6

6 punches, from ?in. to ?in. 0 9 0

2 screw-drivers, large and small 0 3 6

2 screw-wrenches 0 9 0

1?in. auger 0 1 6

1 brace, and set of bits, including rymers, countersinks,

and bits for metal 1 4 6

3lb. brass screws, assorted, up to 3in. 0 9 0

3 pieces unbleached calico, double width, for lug

sails, awning, &c.

12 copper or composition cringles, small sizes, for

sails and various purposes

Manilla rope, 10 fathoms, 3in., for mooring 2 0 0

Ditto 50 fathoms, 1?in.

Ditto 50 fathoms, 1in., for running gear, &c.

If the boat be built of iron the same size-

Forty sheets of plain iron, 2ft. by 6ft., at 4s. 6d. 9 0 0

All the bolts, screws, nails, and other fastenings, must be of plain iron, and none of them must be galvanised.

Galvanised iron would not be much cheaper than copper, and would be very intractable in working. We should not recommend it to a traveller who intends to build his own boats in the wilderness and expects to have to take them to pieces and rebuild them two or three times.

Tinned charcoal iron would be nearly as expensive as copper, and the fastenings would also have to be tinned.

Plain iron is the only metal on which any saving could be effected, even at the cost of additional labour. In this case, perhaps, three times the amount of paint should be taken.

A mixture of red and white lead, with half boiled and half raw linseed oil, should be used rather thickly for painting the inside of every joint, and all the bolts, screws, or nails, should be thrown into boiled oil, then taken out and allowed to drain and dry before they are used. The boat must be thoroughly well painted after completion, and the paint allowed to harden before she is put into the water.

If the boat is built of wood the same size-

Two deals and a half, as before, for keels, keelsons, stems, and stern posts.

Four deals, each to be cut into four ?in. planks, for flat sides, gunwales, and stringers.

Five deals, each to be cut into six ?in. planks, or equal to 230 running feet of plank, to stand, when cleaned, not less than ?, and 630 feet not less than ?.

5000 copper boat nails, 1?in., with rooves.

28 lb. iron nails, assorted, from 1?in. to 3in.

2000 iron screws, from smallest size to 3in.

90 ?in. screw-bolts and nuts, 6in. grip.

200 ?in. screw-bolts and nuts, 3in. grip.

6 rods of 1/4in. iron, to cut into lengths for bolts, as required.

Paint, oils, &c., as before.

If the traveller can afford to carry two or four good 12ft. ash oars and one of 14ft., by all means let him do so. Nothing is equal to them for pulling or steering, but let him carefully preserve his treasures, and not put them to any use that will twist or warp. If he engages natives as a permanent crew, they may be taught to pull very well; but if he hires temporary helps, let them bring their own paddles, and they will make the boat go well enough.

For the connecting beams, the masts, yards, &c., we should prefer bamboo, as being exceedingly strong in proportion to its weight. In the Indian islands we have seen oars made of bamboo poles, with a disk of wood about as large as a dinner plate lashed on the outer end, and the men pulled very well with them. If bamboo cannot be obtained, poles may generally be cut in the vicinity of a river; but the traveller in Africa or Australia must not expect to find any wood that will possess all the valuable qualities of good red deal, therefore we would say take as much of this as you can carry, without inconveniently incumbering your vehicles. The battens we were able to take to the Zambesi astonished the natives there, they had never seen wood so light, so strong, and so even of grain throughout its length; while the fresh smell it gave out when cut was their constant theme of wonder.

In 1864 Mr. Charles Bell, the Surveyor-General at Cape Town, who has built and used double boats since 1850, favoured us with the subjoined description of his method of construction:-

"My boats are only 12ft. long by 9in. wide, and 9in. deep, and 12ft. by 14in. I have never made them more than 15ft. long, with a bearing power of about 800lb. I have now built or directed the building of about five good boats on the principle, easy and swift under oars or before the wind under sail, and not very faulty even on a wind without any false keel, but you can never sail quite close without one. Mine were built to go through heavy surf all fore and aft, so that the wave could strike nothing except sharp edges, and in surf they are first-rate.

"Iron is objectionable both on account of weight for carriage, and liability to oxidisation in heat and moisture; nothing like canvas. A bolt of No. 3, 2lb. of tin tacks, and a few needles and hanks of twine, would be all I would bother myself to carry a mile. My first boat had not an ounce of metal in her barring rowlocks and rowlock sockets, and she cost me 17s. 6d. and some old plank, and carried me safely through wall-sided breakers that would have troubled a whale-boat's crew. Say you want a pair of 30ft. boats of 3ft. beam and depth, tolerably safe even against snags and rocks. For each take a 30ft. batten, 3in. by 2?in. for keel; strut and erect on it knees' planks and stem pieces as in Figs. 5 and 6, and section in Fig. 2 (p. 116).

"Trust greatly to lashing the frame; let the knees diminish in beam from the centre to each end as in Fig. 1 (p. 116): draw in your side pieces and planks, or rather press them down to your vertical side laid on a flat surface, and you will have lines that will astonish you. Of course you can raise stem and stern for the look of the thing, as I have done, but it gives more trouble than it is worth. If you want to make a safe lifeboat, tack tight over each knee-frame a piece of canvas (Fig. 3, p. 116), leaving an edge loose and broad enough to be sewn on to the outer canvas, loosely (so as not to interfere with the lines it will naturally take), and be tacked to boards and battens where they come in contact with it. I should have first said cover bottom and sides with tightly-stretched canvas, in which operation a cobbler's pinchers are most useful, but any others will do, then grease outside and in. If you prefer tar and have it, well and good; then cover the deck in the same manner, stitching knee-piece canvases as you go. You will thus, if the workmanship be perfect, have in each half boat ten watertight compartments, which it will be no easy matter to damage; snags will be your worst enemies, and they cannot damage more than one at a time under ordinary circumstances, whereupon the first landing and a crooked needle with patch of canvas, twine, and grease, will make all right. In the deck of each such compartment you should pierce a marlinspike hole, button-hole the edges, and fit a plug, and as a large boat cannot be so easily turned upside down as ours, you may have a pipe, and any simple means of sucking out such bilge water as may get in. Next as to connection of the boats. If you wish it sliding, so as to increase or diminish the width between them when necessary, make it on the lattice girder or rafter principle, and avoid weight, as in Fig. 7; each not more than 6ft. from the centre. Stay and strut them to points near the stem and stern, and they will be quite strong and firm enough to support the mast and the awnings, with the other fittings. The knee-pieces may be left projecting when required to meet the sliding rafter; 1ft. between the boats will be quite enough, so 10ft. of rafter will be quite enough. The sail may be a long low lug, split if you like, to let it pass the mast when on a wind (Fig. 4). An oar will steer, and easily control the extra face of sail on one side when before the wind with the yard squared. But on a wind you must have a keel, one that will slide over sunken rocks, and not be damaged even when it takes them side on. It may fix with free play in the front beam, and lay loose in cleats on the after one with a projecting arm to be held upright by rope, as in Fig. 8.

"Of course there must be an opening between the deck planks, to allow of its rise. Such a boat will carry at least a ton and a half of cargo, if made sufficiently flat in the bottom, and it will require a very stiff breeze and large sail even then to submerge the lee boat. There is this advantage, too, that it cannot be done so quickly as to prevent the remedy by luffing up or otherwise with ordinary vigilance. Your goods and tarpaulins will be quite safe 6in. above the gunwale.

"Yours very truly,

"Charles Bell."

Just before returning from South Africa we found that the clever author of "A Painter's Camp in the Highlands" had also gone through nearly the same course of experiments, and had arrived, like us, at the conclusion that the double form of boat was the most safe, convenient, portable, and roomy on deck; and also that it was objectionable to have the inner sides rounded, for the reasons before given. He therefore finally adopted the flat inner side, and making his boats 30ft. in length and 4ft. apart at the stem, increased the width to 4ft. 1in. aft, so as to let the inclosed body of water glide away more easily. He found, however, that after working out his own idea for his own use, he was served with a notice for infringing a patent of which he had not previously heard; and in like manner, after our return from Africa, a description of a patent tubular life raft was submitted to Captain George, at the Royal Geographical Society, and he immediately saw that this was nearly identical with our own plan.

Making inflatable boats safe.

About 1853, a friend in Graham's Town, with whom we left our model of the inflatable boat, subsequently used in Australia (see p. 48), made one for his own amusement, on a small river. He had but two tubes, each of them with a flat side toward the centre, with a small platform between raised on crossed struts, one pair of which on each side were very ingeniously made to carry the rowlocks, as in the next sketch (Fig. 9). And, as he was doubtful of keeping the canvas of his boats sufficiently air-tight, he either filled them, or proposed to do so, with the bladders of oxen previously inflated, so that, even were air to escape from the tubes which formed the boats, they could not collapse. This, in itself, would be a hint which a traveller, who must either shoot game or kill domestic animals for his followers, would do well to bear in mind.

Skiff of iron or copper.

Iron, whether plain or galvanised, is sold in sheets of 2ft. by 6ft., while those of copper are 2ft. by 4ft. We recommend only the copper; but economic or other reasons may very possibly compel the traveller to use iron.

We have, for facility of construction, chosen the form of a Norwegian praam, or wherry, with both ends alike. A semicircular section slightly flattened at the bottom, without a keel, and rising with an easy sheer to a sharp point at either end.

Eleven sheets of iron would be required; the central one being left of its original shape and size, while the five at either end are cut to the forms shown by the outer lines, and to the dimensions indicated by the figures marked along the lower edge: thus, in No. 1, from the centre there is no perceptible curve along the 6-foot side, but the ends are sloped off, with straight although diagonal lines, so that the side nearest the centre remains 6ft., while the farthest is reduced to 5ft. 9in.

In the next sheet, or No. 2, the side nearest the centre curves very slightly; the segment taking off only one inch at either end, the curved side (supposing we are now working from the centre forward) overlaps the edge of No. 1 two inches, and it is therefore cut, not to 5ft. 9in., but to 5ft. 10in., as No. 1 would be of that breadth, a couple of inches back; the front side is left straight, but is reduced in breadth to 5ft. 5in., and the after side of No. 3 is so much more curved that the segment cuts off three inches. The figures in the diagram will render the progressive diminution to the end sufficiently plain. It will be seen that the end remains one foot wide; this is usually filled in with a semicircular piece of plank, being quite sharp enough for all practical purposes, and affording room for a rowlock for a steering or sculling oar, or for a hole through which the boat's painter may be passed. But, if desired, another piece of iron, which may be called sheet No. 6, may very easily be let in to continue the curve quite up to a point, as in the dotted end of Fig. 2. The half section is given on the side marked iron of Fig. 3, the outer line standing for the two edges of the central sheet, where the skiff is 4ft. wide and 1ft. 10in. deep. The next line, 1?in. smaller all round, is the section at the overlap of sheets Nos. 1 and 2; the third line, two inches within the last, is at the edges of Nos. 2 and 3; the fourth, three inches smaller, is at the contact of Nos. 3 and 4; the fifth, six inches less, is at Nos. 4 and 5; and the sixth, diminishing by nine inches, is the end of No. 5, which is filled in by a semicircle of plank about five inches in diameter.

The eleven sheets laid side by side would, of course, present a length of 22ft., but the overlap and the segment of the curve cut from those near the ends would reduce the length of the boat to 19ft.

Our diagram is on a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, but this is somewhat small for the needful accuracy; therefore if anyone intends to build, we would advise him to copy it on a scale of at least one inch to a foot, in which case the halves will represent six inches and the quarters three, and if he has a rule divided to one-twelfths, his work will be much facilitated.

It would be better to make, as we have done in preparing this description, a model block on which to test his work; indeed we would advise this in all cases of intended boat building. If the boat is to have a bow and stern distinct from each other, the model must be of the whole length, but may be of only half the breadth. If both ends are to be alike, it may be half the length and breadth, or one quarter of the boat.

In the present instance, take a piece of deal, as clean and straight-grained as possible, 19in. long (or 21in. if you wish the ends to come to a point), 4in. wide, and 3in. deep. Having smoothed this, draw a line along the centre of the top and bottom, connecting them by perpendiculars at the two ends; then on the top set off the line of one-quarter of the gunwale, or outer line, taking the breadths from the section in Fig. 3 (p. 119), and their distances from the centre, from the elevation in Fig. 2 (p. 119), bearing in mind that the centre means not either of the edges, but the middle of that marked as the central sheet. It will save trouble to cut out a piece of card to the size of this quarter, and trace the corresponding ones on the top and bottom of your block; then copy the elevation given in Fig. 2, and trace this, as before, on both sides. Now fix the block, with one end up in a bench vice, and with a narrow frame saw cut along the gunwale lines nearly to the centre, but do not cut them quite off, or you will lose your elevation lines (if a friend helps you by guiding the other end of the saw to the line on his side, you will be more certain to cut truly); then turn the block one-quarter round, and cut the line at top and bottom. Now place the other end uppermost, and repeat the process; and lastly, finish the cuts, and detach the superfluous pieces.

Take a piece of card or thin stuff, and draw on it the midship section, and cut this away, leaving a corresponding hollow; round off the edges of your model until she fits this hollow, and of this size 2in. of the centre must be left. Do the same with the diminishing sections, forward and aft; then cut eleven sheets of card 2in. by 6in., mark a central line across each, and also along the bottom of the model; lay one sheet uncut across the midship section, and tack it there; mark each of the others after the outlines given in the diagram (Fig. 1, p. 119), but test them in their places before cutting them. Take care also that as you go forward each sheet overlaps that which is behind; but as you work aft, insert the front edge under the one before it. You may think this operation would be tedious; but having once gone through it, you will build your full-sized boat with confidence. And let us again assure you that time spent in obtaining a preliminary certainty of your plan is saved over and over again when you come to actual work.

The sheets having been cut to the proper shape, set the two points of the gauge ?in. apart, and so that the centre of the space between them shall be exactly 1in. from the shoulder, and gauge these lines all round the sheets, then, commencing from the centre of the longest side, mark off spaces of 3in., and with a flat-ended punch, and a dolly or matrix, or, in lack of that, a hard block of end wood, drive ?in. holes on all the sides except those which are cut with a curve. Then lay the centre sheet on the rib or mould, which, like the rough frame on which bricklayers construct an arch, gives it its proper curve, and, under one edge, lay the curved edge of the next sheet. Mark where the holes should come; remove it and punch them, and fasten the two sheets together temporarily with three or more of the screw bolts. Do the same with the successive sheets towards each end, and you will find that the copper shell, even without ribs or strengthening of any kind, will assume its proper form and will be tolerably stiff. If the sheets are truly cut, the result may be attained, even without a mould, by driving one hole in the centre of the curved side, bolting it to the straight edge of the other sheet, and then bending both round till the curved edge coincides with the straight one. In this condition you may decide on increasing the width of your boat by forcing the sides farther apart; this will increase her sheer or elevation at either end, and will diminish her depth, or you may incline to reduce her beam, which will give her greater depth and will reduce the sheer till the elevation of the gunwale presents nearly a straight line. It would be better, however, if circumstances permitted, to adhere very nearly to the form given in the drawing, and set up such a frame for working on as is shown in the illustration on the next page.

Drive as many rough stakes into the ground as the number of sheets in your intended boat requires. Let these near the centre be three and a half or four feet high, and these at the ends slightly lower. Stretch a chalk line fore and aft, and see that all their centres are in true alignment and 1ft. 10in. apart. The line should be fastened to two posts in the same line as, but beyond these required for, the boat. Let it come low enough just to touch the central posts, then measure downwards from the line the amount necessary to be cut off those towards the ends, so as to give the proper sheer. Next, commencing from the centre, face off with a saw, or otherwise, as much of each post as is needful to let each frame lie truly against it, noticing that as the bottom of each is farther from the next than the top or part near the gunwale, it is more convenient to face that side of the post which looks towards the centre; then, with any rough slabs or planks, form two moulds the exact size and form of your midship section, just as bricklayers would do if they were building an arch. Nail these to their proper supports, and on them bend the strips, 2in. broad by 1/4in. thick, you intend for ribs, letting only one edge rest on the mould, while the other projects so far that you may have clear space to bore through the centre the holes for your screw-bolts. Do the same with all the others towards the two ends, confining them with a temporary ribband where the gunwale is afterwards to be; or, still better, leaving their ends 6in. too long, so that this ribband may not interfere with the completion of the boat. Have a chalk line stretched near the ground, along either side, parallel with the centre one above, so that any deviation from the proper form can be measured and corrected. Then lay on the sheets, insert the bolts, and screw them up, adding a keel or centre batten, bilge streaks, and gunwales, externally, and bottom boards to prevent the occupant treading on the copper, and stringers for the thwarts inside. The projecting ends of the ribs can be left where required for rowlocks, or cut off where they are not.

The same process, with attention to the different dimensions, will make you a copper boat, consisting of nine sheets, 2ft. by 4ft.; and this will be 16ft. long, 3ft. 3in. wide, and 10in. deep; but if the gunwales were made of plank, 4?in. wide, or half the width of a deal, the skiff would be quite deep enough to carry three or four persons in moderately smooth water.

If you wish to build the same boat of wood, ?in. planks (not more than 4in. wide) will be stout enough. The lines radiating from the centre in the sectional drawing are given for the purpose of showing the progressive diminution of the planks in width, from the central section towards each end. These should be tested by cutting strips of card and tacking them, like planks, on the block that serves as your model.

This would be a very handy form for a dingy for the traveller's personal use, as it might be taken to pieces, and the sheets laid flat, occupying a space of 2ft. by 4in. in extent, and less than 1in. in depth, or they might be rolled up in three bundles, of which each must weigh less than 24lb., as the weight of the whole nine sheets of copper before being cut would be only 72lb. The screw-bolts would weigh probably more than the sheeting, but they could be divided into packets of any convenient weight for carriage by native porters or otherwise; and we should think that half a day would be quite sufficient to put the whole together when wanted, or take it apart when done with. The boat would pull or paddle, and would sail well enough off the wind, but would not compete with a keeled boat close hauled; if the iron sheets were used, she would, of course, be larger and heavier, and the material would be less portable.

In the boat built for Mr. E. D. Young, for use on the Shire river and Lake Nyassa, thin sheets of steel were at first proposed, but as these could not be readily obtained, the best iron was used, and the edges of these being turned upward and inward, formed the ribs of the boat, each sheet being connected by bolts passing through this inward edge to the next sheets before and behind it. This form of construction combines all the elements of lightness, simplicity, and strength; but we do not recommend it to a traveller who has to work up his own material, because none but a skilled workman could turn inward a broad segment of a sheet of metal, the outer surface of which has to present a curve. If anyone doubts this, let him try it by folding half an inch of the edge of a sheet of paper to a right angle with the other part, he will then find it impossible for him to impart a curvature to the sheet without tearing the upturned edge if he bends it outward, or wrinkling it if he gives the contrary curve. If he wished to adopt this form of joining the parts, his plan would be to cut up his sheets of copper into planks 4ft. long, and 8in. broad, then gauging a line all round 2in. within the edge, cut out the squares at the four corners and turn up the borders all round, he would thus have out of one sheet of copper 4ft. by 2in., three planks 4in. wide, and 3ft. 8in. in length, a waste of material that hardly any circumstance could justify.

Metal boats.

In 1858 we made a model of a metal boat, about thirty feet long, by six feet beam, to carry a crew of sixteen men, each of whom, when it was taken to pieces, should not find his share of the load to exceed 50lb. each of the thwarts; and the bow and stern sheets were continued downward so as to form a water-tight box, the lower outline of which coincided with the section of the boat, so as to supply the place of ribs and convert her into a lifeboat. Indeed, we would advise that in all metal boats some such portions should assume the form of lockers or of reservoirs of air, so that, should the boat be swamped or become leaky, she might not sink even when filled with water.

Our model was approved by Captain Washington, R.N., the Secretary at that time of the Lifeboat Institution, and the builder to whom we submitted it estimated the weight of the sheet copper and bolts of the same to be employed in the hull at 260lb. and the cost at 60l., while the internal fittings, somewhat less in weight, would cost 40l. This expense Dr. Livingstone considered to be too great; but, when we reached the Zambesi, it was a matter of frequent regret that we had not some form of boat portable enough to be carried over rough country to rivers we wished to explore.

BOAT BUILDING ON THE LOGIER RIVER.

One of the most beautiful little vessels we ever saw was built by the wrecked crew of a French steamer. She was 40ft. long and 8ft. or 10ft. beam, clinker-built, with thin and narrow planks, without a joint in their whole length, sawed out of the mainmast, and flexible ribs about a foot apart and not more than one inch in breadth or thickness. Her deck beams were, of course, somewhat more rigid, to sustain the weight of the men who crowded her. She was said to have sailed eleven knots.

Wattled boat.

Our friend, Mr. Wilson, an experienced African traveller, recommends a wattled or basket-work boat, and in a country where rattans, osiers, or flexible twigs, or green reeds, are obtainable, such a boat would be both light and durable; but it would be open to objection on the score of unavoidable roughness, and inequality of outer surface, which would impede its progress through the water, and expose parts of the canvas covering to constant liability to chafe whenever it touched the ground. Even if a traveller intends to purchase or hire native canoes, it is indispensable that he should have some small portable boat of his own, sufficient at least to show the natives that he is not totally helpless on the water and dependent on them.

In the case of our copper boat, illustrated at page 53, we have already remarked that the difficulties of the road, and the mortality among Mr. Chapman's cattle, obliged us to leave behind eight of the sections. The method we adopted with the other four is shown in our full-page illustration, representing boat-building on the Logier River.

On account of the danger from the tsetse, or poisonous cattle fly, our friend's waggons could not be taken to the banks of the Zambesi, and everything had to be carried by the Damara servants and hired natives to Logier Hill, about eighty miles below the Victoria Falls, which we had selected as the first place from which continuous downward navigation was possible.

The building of the house will come more properly under its own heading, and we will now only treat of what concerns the boat.

About the 3rd of October, or towards the close of the dry season, we cut down a motchicheerie tree, which divided a little above the ground into two tolerably straight logs of manageable dimensions. These were first notched with the axe on the side we intended to "fall" them; the cross-cut saw was then "put in" as far as it would go without nipping from the pressure of the wood, and a notch being made on the other side, the saw was used freely, the weight of the tree on the "falling" side opening the cut as the work proceeded.

Fresh reports, however, caused us much uncertainty whether the Falls of "Moambwa," or the rocks, were not still below the station, and some time was therefore spent in exploring the river down to Sinamane's Island, when, having ascertained that the rapids and other difficulties appeared not quite impracticable, we set up the bow and stern sections of one boat, connecting them by the ribbands of red deal we had been able to carry up, and fitting at short intervals a series of frames on central posts, as described at p. 122, and further supported by shorter posts on either side, in a line with the gunwale streak, testing the accuracy of all parts where correctness was required with plumb line and level, and leaving the rest rough.

Our bench consisted of ten stakes, nearly 3ft. high, driven into the ground, and two long straight poles laid fore and aft in their forks; smaller poles were laid across these as closely as possible, and lashed with the inner bark of the young branches of the "kookomboyon"-a kind of stercuhia, which, while still moist, answers very well, but becomes brittle in drying. The large smith's vice was firmly lashed to the stoutest upright with raw hide, and forked poles were set diagonally to resist the forward strain to which the bench was subject when wood was being planed up.

It was just possible to get thin poles that would bend, but none were sufficiently flexible to take the true curve required for the ribs, and at the same time strong enough to bear the strain when they became dry. Therefore we had to cut crooks out of the motchicheeries, the wood of which looked something like coarse short-grained cedar; and first burning away the light stuff from the tree cut down a month ago, we found a great many available forks and curves.

We had great difficulty in selecting wood of a suitable size for plank; trees too small, or too crooked, or of unsuitable wood, were in abundance; while those of the wood we wanted were mostly too large and unmanageable. Sometimes, at a distance, one would appear to be small enough, but when we came near it would prove three or four feet thick and sixty or eighty feet high, and had only seemed small by comparison with those around it. One group of motchicheeries had grown to maturity, throwing a wide-spread shadow around them; and a young sapling had shot straight up from near their roots towards the air and light; this was 9in. thick at the base, and 4in. at nearly 30ft. up; it proved impossible to "fall" the top outward, and it was very difficult to clear from the other trees. We would have saved labour by floating it down stream to our building-yard, but the wet season was coming on, and the sap had by this time risen in the wood, so that a small piece sunk when thrown into the water. The labour of sinking a saw-pit would have been great, and besides this the expected rains would have kept it always wet. We therefore erected trestles of primitive construction; two triangles of forked poles, 6?ft. long, supported the ends of a stout cross-beam, firmly lashed to them with buffalo hide, and for greater security lashed also to the stem of a tree. The second trestle was destitute of this support, and therefore had to be shored by longer poles, the forks of which took the necks of the opposite triangles, while their hands were stopped by wedges driven into the ground; for additional firmness, lashings were passed at the points of intersection. Two stout poles were laid fore and aft upon the trestles, and shorter pieces across served to rest the log upon; there was some difficulty in lining the lower side, but by cutting notches in the cross-pieces large enough to let the chalk line pass freely, and "springing" it only by short lengths at a time, this was accomplished. It was difficult to teach a young Dutch lad, strong as an ox, and nearly as stolid, to saw with us; but at length the "sapling" was cut, and one of the larger logs lifted gradually up by forming an inclined plane with strong poles, and supporting it whenever we gained a few inches of elevation by forks of various lengths lying ready for that purpose. This having been felled before the sap was up proved much easier to saw, and we had so far overcome the difficulties in our way, that we had commenced laying the bottom plank of the first boat, when the difficulty of providing food, owing to the retreat of the wild animals to the pools which the rainy season was filling all over the desert, and the fever among the people, seven Damaras, mostly women and children, having died in Chapman's camp, and one of the most useful men in ours, obliged us, for the sake of saving the rest, to retreat to the highlands of the desert, and on the 3rd of February, 1863, we hauled down our colours at Logier Hill, and commenced our return journey.

General hints on boat building.

Two general rules in boat building should be borne in mind. First, that clumsiness is not necessarily strength; and, secondly, that it is much easier to build a sharp swift boat with moderate sheer, and clear lines of entrance and run, than a short one with great beam, bluff bows, and wide overhanging stern. The stem and stern post should rake considerably, or even form parts of a curved line connected by the keel, as if they are made too upright, not only is the boat more difficult to steer when sudden alteration of the course is necessary, but, if she is built of wood, so much curvature is required in the ends of the planks that it is difficult for an inexperienced hand to lay them. A rudder cannot be nicely fitted to a curved stern-post, but if you decide to steer with one instead of an oar, make the stern-post straight, and if you wish to diminish its "rake" or inclination, make it one foot wide below and only a few inches at the top. A rudder is much more convenient in ordinary cases; but, when great quickness and power is required, nothing is equal to the steering oar.

In constructing a clinker-built boat some practice is required in clinching the nails. First, a hole is bored with a gimlet of such a size that the nail requires some driving, but very little, to force it through. This prevents any lateral curvature, which would be fatal to any attempt at clinching. A roove is then put over the joint and driven home to the surface of the plank, and the end of the nail is nipped off nearly close with a pair of cutting pincers. If you have a spring-handled hammer to screw on to the plank so that the face of it just rests on the head of the nail, so much the better, if not, you must hold your heavy hammer with your left hand or get a mate to do so; while with the edge of your little clinch hammer you tap as sharp and lightly as possible on the centre of the cut end of the nail, causing its sides to overspread the edges of the roove, when it can be nicely smoothed off with the face of the hammer. When one plank has been laid, the outside of its upper edge should be bevelled off so as to let the lower edge of the next lie truly against it in the position required by the curvature of the boat's side; and, to retain it in its place, several pairs of "nippers" should be used. These are made of two pieces of wood-say sixteen inches long and two inches square-cut a mortice ?in. wide by 3in. long in each, and pass through them a piece of hard wood fitting the mortice loosely and 12in. long, so as to project 4in. at either end, in each end of this bore three ?in. holes, not quite in the central line, but one a little on one side of it, and the next on the other, so as to avoid the risk of splitting two into one; have pegs of hard wood or iron to put through these at the distance you may require, then having adjusted one end of the nippers on the planks you wish to hold together, drive a wedge between the other ends till the grip is tight enough. A pair of these is shown in our illustration at page 106. We believe that the traveller will find it generally most advisable to build his boat bottom upwards.

Cape-waggon boats.

We should think that a traveller in South Africa, using the common ox-waggons of the country, might easily, and without additional weight, carry up with him all the wood necessary for the purposes of boat building. The floor or bed-plank of the waggon is about thirty-six inches in width, and from twelve to eighteen feet in length. Four deals might be laid down for this. If they were twenty-one feet long, they would project considerably behind. It is not considered expedient to have the fore and hinder wheels too great a distance apart; but then the projecting ends need not be loaded. The usual holes for the fastenings of a waggon bottom should not be bored in them, but they should be secured by lashings of raw hide, and the parts liable to be chafed should also be protected with the same material. They might be previously sawed into planks or battens of the required size, and then tightly lashed together by thongs of raw hide, especially near the ends, which would otherwise be liable to split with changes of weather and rough usage. The waggon sides are usually a little more than two feet high in front and three or more behind, and the framing of these is an elaborate piece of work. Three deals 9in. wide would give 27in. in height all along. These might be cut into ?in. or ?in. plank, and again bound up with raw hide, like those of the floor, and thus the traveller would have in one waggon nine deals, or more than sufficient, if he built his boat of copper; while, by raising the sides to 36in. with a couple more, he would have enough to construct her entirely of wood.

In building the waggon-tent or tilt, as it would be called in England, two methods are adopted in the Cape. The first is the kap-tent (E on next page), which is regularly framed by the waggon builder with stanchions about five feet high from the floor, neatly fitted to the sides, at intervals of two feet or thirty inches; with bows of flexible wood, forming a flattened arch about nine inches higher, across them, and fore and aft battens, half-checked in, so that the whole presents a smooth external surface to receive the inner sail, or cover of painted canvas, which is laid on before the outer sail, or snow-white neatly-fitted tilt, is drawn over all. The second is that which any competent waggon driver can extemporise for himself with a sufficient quantity of bamboo split into laths two or three fingers broad, stout Spanish reeds, common hogshead hoops, or an adjacent forest, in which flexible poles can be cut. His first care is to lift and shore up his waggon so as to set free one or both of the hinder wheels, on the circumference of which the flexible rods he intends for his bows are bent and fastened down, and in doing this some care is requisite. The rod must not be grasped by both ends and suddenly forced into the curve, for one part may be weaker than the rest, and it may break there, or be forced into an unsightly prominence; but, after having been steamed, if possible, or, as is more commonly the case, laid for two or three days in water or wet earth, the part intended for the centre of the arch should first be bound tight and flat upon the tire of the wheel, then the ends should be gradually pressed down by two assistants, the principal watching the inequalities of the curvature, and reducing them by passing turns of raw hide tightly over any parts that have a tendency to irregular projections. The bows, which should be about twelve or fourteen feet in total length, are now set up. Care having been taken that the waggon sides stand truly, the front and aftermost are first fixed, and the driver, if a man of average height, stands on the centre of the waggon floor, holding the bow as fairly as he can, with the crown of its arch about the level of his eye, say five feet six from the floor, while his assistants, standing outside, fasten the ends with screws or thongs of raw hide, to the styles or stanchions of the waggon sides. The lifter, the dissel-boom, or other straight and heavy pole, is now laid fore and aft upon the bows to keep them in a level line, and also somewhat to flatten the crown of the arch and expand it laterally. The laths or battens, fore and aft, are now lashed on, and the result is a less sightly but stronger and more durable roof for the exigencies of travel than the kap-tent. In the rear of the tent (letter N) are shown the ribs of an ox or buffalo slung to the roof to hang the saddles on.

CAPE WAGGON TENT (E) TO BE TAKEN OFF AND USED AS A BOAT (G).

Such a tent as either of these might be easily constructed so as to be available for a boat whenever it might be required. First let the stanchions, screwed or lashed to the waggon sides, rise to the usual height of about five feet, and let the bows forming the flattened arch across them be of any flexible material, but preferably of straight-grained ash, such as is used for the better kind of tubs or casks. The hoops of American flour barrels would answer well; they are somewhat thin, but three might be laid together, and would be much more flexible and strong than if one piece only was used.

Of these, supposing nine bows were used, three in the front and three in the rear might be permanently secured to the stanchions, as in the illustration (E, p. 131), while the three central ones should be so fastened as to be readily cast off. The laths or battens, on the contrary, should be securely fastened to the central bows, so as to lift off with them, and only slightly to those at either end.

When the boat is required, it would be but an hour's work to cast off the temporary fastenings. Take off the movable part of the top frame, draw the ends of the battens together, as shown in the illustration (G, p. 131), inserting at pleasure three or four smaller bows at either end, and then taking the under sail-which is generally of oiled canvas-fold down the corners so as to narrow it at either end to the shape of the boat, and stitch or lace it with eyelet-holes to the gunwale. A second thickness of unpainted canvas might always be kept upon the roof between the inner and outer sail; and if this were also laced on the boat, previously reversing the ends of the two parts of canvas, so that if any portions had been chafed while on the waggon they might not coincide with each other, the boat would be as impervious to water as wooden boats generally are.

A few spare laths, previously lashed beneath the front and aftermost bows of the tent, so as to remain there when those required for the boat were removed, and perhaps two or three duplicate bows, would prevent the necessity of leaving the vehicle destitute of cover while the boat was being used.

Sculling.

Very often the explorer may find himself alone in a boat, or he may wish to cross a river or pass from ship to shore or back again without calling other men from their duties, and in such cases he who has the power of managing a boat with a single oar, has a great advantage over one who must ask the aid of another. We have been on boat trips where the scientific officers have cheerfully manned the oars and pulled against the stream all night, and when we volunteered to take our turn, the answer was, "No; you can scull, and none of us can. Keep the steering-oar, and help us onward with it." The first great difficulty of the novice is to get the blade of his oar under water and keep it there, and to make the loom rest firmly in the rowlock; the natural tendency of the wood to float will at first seem insuperable, but as soon as he has acquired the proper motion of the wrist he will wonder that he ever had the slightest trouble in keeping the oar to its duty.

To learn to scull, go into a boat that is either fast to the shore or vessel, or have a comrade to pull the other oar with you should you fail. Then stand on the stern-sheets on the starboard side, so that the right hand may be toward the bow of the boat; plant the left foot on the starboard side seat, and advance the right to the middle of the aftermost thwart; grasp the small end of the oar with the right hand, and the loom with the left about eight or ten inches from it, so that when the blade of the oar is horizontal the back of the hands and arms may be uppermost and also in a horizontal line. You will find that when the blade is supported by the water, the loom will not lie in the rowlock; but now depress the wrists a little, raise the hands till the blade forms an angle of 40° or 45° with the horizon, the edge farthest from you being the highest; push the oar from you as far as you can without losing your balance, then, as your first stroke ceases, drop the hands and raise the wrists till the blade inclines as much the other way, the raised edge being then nearest you; pull the loom towards you, bending backwards at the same time as far as you safely can, and you will find the arms in the proper position, with the elbows at the side, the wrists lowered, and the hands ready to rise for the stroke from you. Make short strokes at first, and do not hurry. Never mind which way the boat goes, or whether she goes at all; stick her nose in a mudbank, if you like, till you can keep your oar below the surface, then give her her head; if your oar keeps under water she must go forward, and by making a stronger sweep to starboard or to port, you may steer her at your will. If you have a long narrow boat, she will keep a straight course, but with a short dingy, she will incline at each stroke a little to the right or left, and if you use the oar regularly, her wake will show a series of graceful and equal curves.

In default of an oar, the bottom board may be taken up and used by being laid on the point of the stem, the boat going then stern first. Lightermen, on the Ouse, frequently scull their horse boats in this manner. We have sculled a whale boat with one oar over the quarter, i.e., in the crutch of the stroke oar, much as a gondolier does; but tholes or rowlocks cut in the streak above the gunwale would not admit of this. We give no directions for this or for the use of the plank. When the novice can keep his oar blade under water, he can easily learn how to adapt his new power to any emergency.

Paddling.

In paddling a canoe sit near the stern, looking forward, and with the paddle on your right side make a long fair stroke; never mind the deviation of her head to the left; but just before you lift your paddle from the water, feather the blade of it by turning the right hand inward from the wrist, turn the right elbow outward, and draw the left hand inward across your breast; this will "port your helm" and bring her to her course again.

If you have a mate who handles another paddle this is less needful; but it is well to learn to paddle your own canoe practically as well as metaphorically, single handed.

The kroomen about Sierra Leone use a canoe pointed at both ends and with a great sheer; this, to a novice, is much more difficult to keep to a true course, but a single krooman tossing his paddle from hand to hand, without missing a stroke, will make her fly direct as an arrow the way he means to go.

In the gunning boats on the Norfolk coasts, when strict silence is not needed, and in canoes of some other countries, a double-bladed paddle is used. The pole is grasped by both hands, like the balance-pole of a rope-dancer, and equal strokes are given alternately, or the course is changed by a more powerful stroke on the other side.

We have occasionally found that the power of handling the native paddle has been of great service, for when we have wished to cross a river to secure some specimen of wading bird, and the bargaining over the hire would have occupied half a day, we have cut the matter short by stepping into the canoe, paddling to the other side, shooting our bird, and making the owners a sufficient present on our return; and, while we advise that all travellers should most scrupulously regard the rights of the natives, we must also intimate that they will not gain the respect of savages by submitting tamely to extortion, or showing themselves in any way afraid to maintain their own.

THE PROA.

Proas.

The proas, or outrigger canoes, of the Malays and Indian islanders, are so proverbially swift that they have fairly earned the title by which they are generally known, of "flying proas." We have seen and admired many varieties of these, as well as their fan-shaped sails, sometimes of matting-bright and yellow while new, and deepening to browner tints with age, and sometimes of snow-white cotton, or of white alternated with cloths of blue or pink, and gay streamers floating from the bending yards. The most common, and we may almost say the most beautiful of these, were the little proas sailed by one man only, as represented in our sketch. The hull consisted of a single log, perhaps twenty feet in length, and hardly as many inches in depth and breadth; the mast was about six feet in height; and the sail, of triangular form, was laced to a couple of bamboos nearly as long as the canoe; the thick ends of these crossed, and were lashed together at the tack of the sail, and were made fast, loosely enough to give them sufficient play, a little before the mast thwart; a loop attached to the upper bamboo, or yard, at about six feet from the tack, was hitched over a knob on the mast-head, instead of hoisting the sail by halyards, and the sheet was attached by loops like kite loops, or bowline bridles, to the lower bamboo or boom; in hauling to the wind, the simple gathering in of the sheet trimmed the sail nearly down to the gunwale, as seen in the distant proa, while in going free the slackening of it allowed the sail to rise to the wind, till in the distance it reminded us of the beautiful fan-shaped sea-shells, so often found upon the coast. Stability was imparted under this enormous press of sail by two bamboos twelve or fifteen feet long, and from four to six inches thick, kept parallel to the boat at six or eight feet from her sides by two beams of the same lashed across her gunwales, bending slightly downward, but the foremost less so than the after, so that the fore end of the outrigger might be raised slightly above the water, and not impede the boat. The rudder was just like that of our own boats, except in its fittings, which consisted simply of a rope grummet at its neck, by which it could be hitched on to a timber head on either quarter, and we believe it made so little difference that the boatman seldom gave himself the trouble to shift it from one to the other. Of course a tiller was used, as yokes and lines would have been inapplicable. We cannot tell exactly their rate of sailing, but they passed our swift and handy little schooner the "Tom Tough" with ease, even when the breeze was at its freshest. The hull is generally whitened with a mixture of chunam, or coral lime, and cocoa-nut oil, and the raised ends are ornamented with devices in red or green, and sometimes a red streak runs along the side. The tambanga, or waterman's boat for passengers, has more beam, no outrigger, and a smaller though similarly shaped sail.

Some of these proas were much larger, being fifty or more feet in length, and then the sides of the log forming the bottom of the canoe would be raised either by other planks sewn on or by a framework of bamboo, with pieces cross cut from the leaves of the fan-palm, so that the leaf ribs should stand vertically, stitched to them to form the extra height of side, while a roof of the same was built over the centre where cargo would be stowed, or over the after end, to form a kind of cabin. When planks are used for raising the sides, they are not sawn like ours, with economy of time, labour, and material, but are laboriously chopped out of the solid; and, instead of being bent, are patiently dubbed down to the requisite curve with numberless strokes of the keen little Malay adze, projections being left on the inner side through which holes are bored to lash them to the timbers, while rows of holes along the edges admit of their being sewn together with strips of rattan, and shreds of palm leaf laid along the seam and confined by the tightening of the stitches, help to reduce the leakage, which, if the vessel works at all in a sea-way, can never be entirely stopped. They have two large sails similar in form to those of the smaller proas, and sometimes a third, as a mizen. This is small enough to be hitched over the mast-head, as before; but the others have to be hoisted by halyards, and the long yards supported by propping them at some distance from the slings by bamboo poles. The stays were formed of slips of bamboo, and sometimes even of the poles, which, being well fastened, would not only resist tension on the weather-side as well as ropes, but on the lee would, by their rigidity, help to support the masts. The outriggers of these were more elaborately framed with a lighter set of beams, which supported stanchions and hand-rails, so that, when the wind freshened, men might run out upon the weather outrigger and, holding on by the hand-rail and stays, which lead from the mast-head, serve as a counterpoise to the immense sails as the boat dashed through the water. Reefing seemed never to be thought of, and our own men soon got into the habit of speaking of a one-man or two-man breeze, according to the number seen on the weather outriggers of the proas that flew past us. The appearance of these vessels when going wing and wing before the wind was very pretty. And others, in the fashion of the Chinese junk, or in every modification of European, engrafted on native form, afforded picturesque contrast, but need not be here described.

The professional pirate has the outrigger only on the weather-side, and this is frequently a log of light wood trimmed sharp at either end, so that while its specific gravity is small enough to keep it buoyant, it is still so heavy as not to be easily lifted out of the water, like a bamboo, and when requisite, men sent on it, as in the former case, will give it additional weight. But the chief peculiarity is in the hull of the vessel, which is only half a boat, the lee-side being perfectly flat, while the weather, or that toward the outrigger, is rounded as usual; they will be frequently more than fifty feet in length, and six or eight in breadth. We speak of the lee-side, because when the course has to be changed-say in beating to windward-they do not go about like a ship, that must go with her bows forward and be steered from the stern, and therefore turns to receive the wind on the other side. This would be fatal to the proa, as the buoyancy of the outrigger would not prevent her from capsizing; and therefore, while the steersman lets that end which is temporarily her bow fall off from the wind, the men who have charge of the tack run round with it on the platform to windward of the mast, the sheet is brought round to leeward, a steersman takes his place at the other end, and that which has been the stern now becomes the bow, and cleaves the waves at the rate of twenty miles per hour. But no one need fear a proa with a double outrigger, for she is not intended to lay alongside and board.

PROA WITH OUTRIGGER ON WEATHER-SIDE ONLY, TO SAIL WITH EITHER END FIRST, AS REQUIRED.

The engraving represents a proa with an outrigger only on the weather-side; and not only would the sail be made to traverse by shifting the tack to that end which, for the time being, was intended to go foremost, but the mast is also fitted to be inclined forward by slackening that which happens to be the back stay, and tightening that which is pro tempore the fore. Those which serve for shrouds, being exactly abreast of the mast, are so arranged for the purpose of facilitating this.

The commander of the United States Exploring Expedition, Charles Wilkes, U.S.N., gives the following description of the Fejee canoes:-

Fejee canoes.

"They are superior to those of other islands. They are generally double, and the largest are 100ft. in length; the two canoes are of different sizes, the smaller serving as an outrigger to the other, and are connected by beams on which a platform is laid, 15ft. wide, and extending 2ft. or 3ft. beyond the sides. The bottom of each canoe is a single plank; the sides are fitted to them by dovetailing and by lashings passed through flanges left on each piece; the joints are closed by the gum of the bread-fruit tree, which is also used for smearing them. They have a depth of hold of about 7ft., and the ends are decked for 20ft., to prevent their shipping seas. Amidships[B] they have a small thatched weather house, above which is a staging on which several people can sit. The canoes of the chiefs are much ornamented with shells. The sails are so large as to appear out of proportion with the vessel, and are of tough and pliable mats; the mast is half the length of the canoe, and is stepped on deck in a chock; the yard and boom are twice as long as the mast; the halyards are carried over a crescent on the mast-head, they are bent on to the yard at a distance from its tack or lower end nearly equal to the length of the mast. The natives manage these vessels very expertly; they require much skill in beating against the wind, for it is necessary that the outrigger should be always on the weather-side, as, if it gets to leeward, no vessel is so easily capsized; in tacking, therefore, the helm is put up instead of down, until the wind is brought abaft the beam, then the tack of the sail is carried to that end which was previously the stern, but which has now become the bow, and the canoe is steered from the other end; they carry sail even when it blows heavily, by sending men on the outrigger to counterbalance the force of the wind. The canoes are of logs hollowed and built upon; they make long sea-voyages, and are provisioned only with yams; they are ornamented with Cypr?a-ovula shells, and carry white pennants; they carry water in cocoa-nut shells, and, with fire and an 'ava' bowl, are equipped for sea. The chief holds the end of the sheet, and it is his duty to prevent the canoe capsizing; the steer oar has a large blade. In smooth water they sail very swiftly, but the force of the sail strains them, and they leak badly, so that the men are constantly baling. The planks are kept in shape by small ribs as with us. The principal tool used is an adze, which is now made by lashing a European plane iron to a crooked handle; they are anxious to possess our tools, and especially the American axe. Their knives are made of bamboo, cut into form while it is still green; after being dried it is charred, which makes it very hard and sharp; a second charring, followed by grinding on a smooth stone, will even fit it for surgical operations."

The balsas.

The balsas, at Guayaquil, as described by Sir E. Belcher, in his journal of the voyage of the "Sulphur," are rafts of ten logs 14in. in diameter, and 60ft. long. The wood is a kind of bombax, called balsa wood, they bear fifteen or twenty tons independent of their crew, and bring fresh water down the river in jars of seven gallons each. Houses thirty or forty feet long, and twelve feet wide, are built on some of them, and families take passage or live permanently on board.

The balsas, at Arica, in Peru, are differently constructed; they are simply skins, stripped off the animal, with as little cutting as possible; the absolutely necessary incisions are then securely closed, the hides are inflated and allowed to dry and harden, and two being laid alongside each other a platform is laid across them, on which the cargo is kept sufficiently high above the spray or ripple, and brought dry ashore even through a heavy surf. Two ox-hides would make a very serviceable balsa, as would also a pair of the large seal, the sea-elephant, porpoise, or other marine animal of suitable size.

Cape waggon chests as rafts.

We will now endeavour to show how the chests that are usually carried in Cape waggons might be converted into a buoyant, roomy, and manageable raft. These chests are generally about three feet in length, and sixteen inches wide and deep; two of them, the fore and after chests, are indispensable, as the waggon cannot be kept in shape nor the cargo properly secured without them; sometimes more are carried, and others of smaller size are affixed to either side, but the objection to these is that in a densely-wooded country, stumps and stout branches are apt to catch the angles of the side chests, and damage or carry them away.

CAPE WAGGON BOXES SO FITTED AS TO BE AVAILABLE FOR A RAFT.

We propose that, in the waggon used by the traveller for his own conveyance, as many of these chests should be stowed as will stand fairly on the floor beside each other, say ten, as in the illustration (A, p. 142). Then, instead of the two usual square-ended side chests, we would advise that four should be fitted (Nos. 11 to 14), each of them having one end 16in. square like the other chests, but tapering at the other end to the mere thickness of the plank, and with the bottom also sloping, so that the narrow end should be only 8in. deep. Two of these with the broad ends together could be fitted on each side the narrow points passing well clear within the wheels. Care should be taken to have them water-tight; and, if made of well-seasoned plank and well oiled, they would remain so for a long time. When they are required for a raft, take them from the waggon and place them in two rows about three feet apart, and also with an interval of 3in. between the ends of the boxes in the same line-as shown in the illustration (B, p. 142)-with the tapered side boxes, as indicated by the numbers, forming the four ends. If you have been able to carry a couple of long stout bamboos, lay them along the inner side of each line of boxes, and if you have lighter ones to lay along the outer sides so much the better; if you have not bamboos, the dissel-booms and lifter poles of the waggons must be pressed into service, or poles sought in the nearest forest, as long and as straight as possible; then take the yokes of the oxen and lay them across in the 3in. spaces between the boxes, and passing the "reims" or other thongs cut from raw hide through the holes made for the yoke "skeis," lash each yoke to the fore and aft poles, securing the boxes each in its own compartment by passing a few turns through the handles in the ends and round the yokes. When this is completed, you will have a very serviceable raft or double canoe. The hinges of the chests will, of course, be towards the centre, so that when opened the lids will fall inwards; and if other poles are now laid fore and aft upon the yokes, they will support the lids so as to form the deck, leaving the chests open, so that, if any of them should leak, the water may be at once seen and baled out; but should it be thought preferable to keep the boxes closed, the buik plank or floor of the waggon, or even its sides, may be made use of for the deck. If the traveller contemplates a long voyage, and requires a sharper boat so as to attain more speed, he may make four of his boxes (marked D 7, 8, 9, 10) tapering diagonally to 8in. at one end; but he must take care that they are made in pairs, so that he may be able to place the straight and the diagonal side of each in its proper position in the raft. He will then also find that they will be easily arranged so that each pair will stow square in the waggon; then the side boxes (D 11 to 14) must be made only 8in. wide at the larger end, tapering as before at the smaller, and, with a slight diminution of floating power, he will have a sharper and more speedy boat. The figures in the central spaces of B indicate the changes of position in the numbered boxes, and the dotted lines show the increase of sharpness at the ends. It is of importance that in the boxes which taper, one side should be straight and square with the end, and one only diagonal, as it might be necessary in a narrow stream, to place both the lines of boxes close together, and then the line of the inner sides being perfectly straight and the outer tapering, the whole would form one boat sharp enough at either end.

Some of the yoke "skeis" might be left in their sockets where required, as shown in the elevation, or other pieces might be cut to a proper length, to serve for tholes or rowlocks, awning stanchions, or belaying pins. If a mast were needed, it might be stepped by cutting jaws like those on the gaff of a cutter, and setting them across one of the yokes. The fork of a branch might serve; but as poles generally become thinner upward, and the natural position would be thus reversed, it would be less laborious to cut or fit on jaws to the butt of the pole, and leave the fork at top for the halyards to run over. Two back stays would be required, spreading at a considerable angle; and one or two fore stays, with sufficient spread not to interfere with the free motion of the yard; two, three, or four poles, set up as a triangle or sheer legs, would also serve, and then only one stay, stretching perpendicularly downwards between them, would be required.

In ferrying wheels over, the readiest way (if the breadth of the boat permits) is to keep each pair on their own axle, which is laid across the boat, with the wheels overhanging each side.

Even if the traveller be not provided with a waggon, he must have with him a quantity of stores, or materials for whatever scientific pursuit he is engaged in, as well as beads, calico, or other currency of the country, to pay for service, or purchase food; and if his boxes for containing these were all of uniform size, they would serve equally well as a raft; the copper boxes described at pages 8 and 9 are expressly designed for this service.

To float waggons.

In floating a waggon over without extraneous assistance, the buik plank or floor, the water cask, the fore and after chests, and the side boxes, will be sufficient, if tolerably water-tight-and if not, they may easily be made so, either by covering them with canvas, by caulking them or even laying them in the river all night to let the wood swell, which will generally have the desired effect. But it would be well, if this is at all doubtful, to remove the drag-chains, "reim-schoens," and all easily detachable ironwork, and first float over only the under carriage and its wheels. If a line can be previously stretched across the river, and the oxen ready in their yokes on the other side attached to it, they may save much trouble by towing it across, while one or two men steer till the wheels take the ground, and it is drawn on shore in the natural way. The buik plank, with the casks and chests still fast to it, can be taken back for the rest of the heavy gear, and as much of the cargo as it will carry. If large hollow reeds-the drier the better-can be obtained, faggots of these can be fastened fore and aft, within the side chests, filling up nearly the whole space, except sufficient for the men to stand on in the centre; and a light platform can be laid above the top of the chests, on which to lay light goods which require to be kept dry. But bear in mind that the cargo a raft can carry above water is always small, and not at all like the mountain of treasure invariably represented on that of Robinson Crusoe.

About 1849 or 1850, while staying with our fellow-traveller, Joseph Macabe, at Vaal River, an extraordinary drought prevailed; the great river could be crossed dryshod at the "drift" by means of stepping-stones, though there were long reaches above and below in which a good-sized vessel might have floated, and on one of the sand-banks then laid bare appeared an upright pole, belonging to a waggon which the owner had attempted to float over with bundles of green reeds, leaving the "rein-schoems" and drag-chains on as ballast, and previously removing the sides, the chests, buik plank, and everything else that could impede its passage to the bottom.

EXTEMPORE SHEARS.

Extricating waggons from quicksands, &c.

Whilst gazing at this odd landmark, Mynheer appeared; with him came a goodly staff of tall athletic sons and nephews, attended by a numerous train of native helpers. On digging for the waggon, it was found to have settled so far below the sand that when the tallest of the family stood on the tire of the wheel his shoulders were barely at the surface of the water, and Mynheer had yoked his oxen and was attempting to draw out the waggon by a horizontal strain. We forbore to offer advice which would certainly have been rejected, but retired to the house, and when one of the sons visited us after the day's fruitless labour, we rigged a pair of miniature shears, and, letting them incline over a weight, showed how easily it might be lifted by applying a horizontal strain to cause the shears to rise to a vertical position. The result of this was that Mynheer sent up a request that, as "een groote zee-water's men," we would come and give him a bit of advice. We accordingly suggested that, as the sand was not firm enough to set the shear legs upon, he should cut three good-sized beams, and laying one horizontally, cut mortices in the ends, while tenons were cut on the other two to fit in them, the apex of the triangle being firmly lashed with the "reims" or thongs of softened hide, used for spanning in the oxen. The triangle was now set up, sloping somewhat over the fore-stell or carriage of the buried waggon, and one of the drag-chains was fastened to the wheel and led over the top of the shears, whence, lengthened out by the other chain and spare rope, it was bent on to the "trek-touw," to which the oxen were already yoked. At length the cattle bent them to the yokes, the gear tightened and strained, the dissel-boom, that so long had been our beacon, began to rise, when some fastening gave way and all came down by the run; the pole, however, remaining a foot higher than it was before. A native was desired to refasten the chain; and, sticking two fingers of his left hand into his nostrils in a manner no European could imitate, he settled down below the water, and worked with his right hand only. Piece by piece the waggon was hauled out during the succeeding days, after having been three years and three days imbedded.

In exploring countries covered with dense forests or difficult to be traversed, rafts are wonderfully useful for navigating lakes and rivers, or for conveying your goods. Dr. R. Brown, commander of the expedition in Vancouver's Island, favours us with the following note:-

Trenneled rafts.

"We travelled long distances by rafts in Vancouver's Island, and, in order to have facilities for making them, we caused an auger (2in.) to be constructed with a ring-head instead of the usual spike with a nut, so that, by a piece of wood being put through it, a handle might be extemporised. Generally speaking we could find dry fallen cedar (Thuja gigantea, Natl.) by the borders of lakes or rivers, or if not living cotton wood (Salix Scouleriana) will do; and in fact any wood, though pine is rather too heavy and apt to get waterlogged.

"Cutting two lengths of logs, the length of the raft required, sharpening the 'bows' off roughly, we laid them on the ground, parallel, and as far apart as we wished them. Then two cross-pieces, composed of a log split in two, were pegged by means of the auger across near the ends, over them was built a floor of split cedar boards. Two rowlocks were pegged in here and there according to the number of rowers required, and one pair at the end for a steering oar. Oars were soon extemporised by means of the axe, and the raft moved lazily along at about one and a half or two miles an hour on a lake, but the labour was infinitely easier than working through the wood with a seventy or eighty pound load on your back.

"Sometimes we constructed even ruder rafts than these. Mr. Frederick Whymper and Mr. Ranald M'Donald once descended twenty miles of a river on a little raft composed of the boards out of an Indian's hunting lodge, tying it together with withes of cedar twigs, which are very tough, and used by the Indians for sewing their canoes and fastening their lodge planks together. The holes they made with pistol bullets."

Principles of raft building.

The general principle on which all rafts are or ought to be constructed is nearly the same; that is, if they are intended to be worked or to make progress through the water, as in most cases is desirable. The exceptions to this are generally when it is merely desired to float down a stream, abandoning the raft as worthless when the voyage is completed, or when produce or manufacture of any kind has to be brought down from a higher country to a lower, and, from its buoyancy it may be collected into a raft, which, on reaching its destination, may be reduced to its component parts and sold; or where, as in still more exceptional cases, it is necessary to provide floating habitations for families or small communities without reference to locomotion, which is effected by other means.

In the first and most general case, the object is to obtain sufficient carrying power with as little resistance to progression as possible; and to this end the larger spars, on which the buoyancy of the whole depends, ought to be laid parallel to, and at such a distance from, each other as seems necessary either to insure the requisite stability, to give sufficient room on deck, or to suit the length of those that are to be used as cross-beams; but they should never be laid close together so as to present a broad united surface to be forced through the water, nor even so close as to convert that portion of fluid between them into dead water to be dragged like a solid body with the raft. We would say, if there be two or more spars of equal size, let the interval between them be at least three times as broad as their diameter, and generally let the width of your raft be not more than one-sixth of its length. If you have only one large spar, let that form the centre, or, as it may be called, the keel, and let the smaller ones, either singly or lashed together in bundles of convenient size, be laid parallel to it at proper distances on either side. Endeavour as much as possible to keep your cross-beams as high above the water as possible, for if these are submerged, their sides will offer as much resistance to your progress as if the whole raft had been filled up with solid logs. On this account, therefore, it would be advisable to lash or pin on the top of each of the main beams either a smaller one to increase its height, or short pieces at intervals, as chocks on which to lay the cross-beams.

Let the ends of the spars that form your floats be pointed to an acute angle by either sawing off wedge-shaped pieces of about 15° or 20° in the sides, or chopping them with axe or adze.

The cross-beams at each end and one in the centre must be securely fastened. Do not have too many, nor keep them too close together; but let the others cross diagonally in opposite directions, or even brace the frame thus formed by stout ropes stretched diagonally from corner to corner, and seized together with smaller lines where they cross each other in the centre, which will give great firmness and rigidity to the structure.

Let us suppose, for instance, the case of a stranded or waterlogged brig of about 200 tons, of which the lower masts and the wreck of some of the other spars are still available. If the masts can be got out so much the better, for they would be in the whole not much short of 60ft. long; but it is much more probable they would have to be cut by the board, and perhaps also below the hounds, which would still leave clean spars between 30ft. and 40ft. in length, and most likely 14in. thick. If the mast-heads were left on they would be at least 10ft. longer, but the tops should be removed, and the projecting portion of the hounds chopped down so as to offer as little impediment to progress as possible; the masts should be laid parallel to each other about 8ft. apart, and the main boom, lower yards and jib boom, or spare topmast, if available, lashed together as a faggot, and laid between them as a central spar. A short, stout spar, such as the heel of a broken topmast, should then be laid across at 6ft. or 8ft. from either end, and firmly lashed to them, and one, or at most two, more may be laid across in like manner near the centre; the intervals between these should be occupied by small spars laid across diagonally, or by cross bracings of rope as before described; it is of little use to peg or treenail the parts together, unless the water is very smooth, for the pegs would be sure to break with the working of the raft in a heavy sea. We have suggested the heels of the topmasts as crossbeams, because their thickness would help to raise the platform above the level of the sea, and this might be farther raised by laying a couple of studding sail booms fore and aft upon the masts under them, and laying the deck with short spars or pieces of plank across the booms. If tools can be got at or used, mortices may be sunk in the masts, or fore and aft spars, and handspikes or capstan bars set upright in them at intervals of 6ft.; these will carry a light rail to prevent men being washed off, and will serve to spread an awning when such a luxury can be attempted, and also as supports to which rowlocks can conveniently be fastened.

If the vessel is provided with sleeping bunks, which are sometimes lashed to ring-bolts on the deck, it might be well to secure at least one of them; if not an empty hogshead or anything that can serve as a place of temporary shelter for a wearied man, or for the commander to consult his charts and compass in, should be fitted on the platform. A sheet of iron, or non-combustible material of any kind, should be taken to form the foundation of a fire-place; and if there is choice of provisions, preserved fresh meat should be taken in preference to salt, with as much biscuit, vegetables, vinegar, sugar, tea or coffee, and fresh water, as circumstances permit. If canvas is at hand, sails will be easily made, if not, any flat surface, sheets of iron or planks, either separate or framed together, may be set up that the raft may sail free, or trimmed for her to go as near the wind as she will lie.

If three casks are available as floating power, make a triangle of studding sail booms, and lash each angle firmly on the top of one of the casks, taking care to keep their heads pointing forward to that which is intended to be the bow; then on these spars build such platform as you need, and erect your mast and sail.

A couple of spare topmasts brought together at their heads, and extended by a shorter spar at their heels, so as to form a triangle more or less acute, form a good foundation for a raft; the space between may then be filled with whatever buoyant material you possess, whether casks, boxes, or smaller spars. No rules can be considered absolute in raft making; anything that will float, and can be lashed together in any manner, must be used; if a portion of the vessel's deck can be cut out by axe or saw it may form a good foundation; if the raft can be built on board the wreck, or on the beach beside her, so much the better, but it would be better to throw the materials overboard, and, at the cost of any extra labour, construct it in the water, than not be able fairly to launch it when completed. We have seen the waist stanchions of a waterlogged vessel cut away for such a purpose, or in extreme cases the hull may be expected to go down, and then the only anxiety will be to complete the raft so that it may be capable of floating off the sinking vessel. In the water a rectangular raft is best built alongside the vessel, but the triangular one must be built astern.

Pot raft.

Of buoyant merchandise formed into rafts for the purpose of floating down rivers to the markets, we have an example in the pottery floats upon the Nile, where a number of jars having been made, are bound together, and a platform of reeds laid on them. Tho long timber rafts upon the Rhine and on the rivers of Canada and North America are also examples of this principle.

Sedge-grass rafts.

On some of the larger rivers of Africa, as the Okovango, discovered by our late friend C. J. Andersson, the Teoughe and others, rafts of sedge grass are used; sometimes these, if only intended to carry a few persons across a river, are small and comparatively manageable, and have even an attempt at comfort and security in a kind of rail raised round them of faggots of the same material. Others, used in hippopotamus hunting, are mere floats on which the small canoes are drawn up, and their chief merit is that they are so like natural accumulations that the animal does not think of getting out of their way.

On a still larger heap of these Mr. Andersson descended the tortuous course of the Teoughe for many miles; and Mr. Oscar T. Lindholm, who accompanied the eminent but unfortunate Swedish naturalist Wahlberg, gave us a most graphic account of a similar voyage. Immense quantities of sedge was collected, and bundles of it were thrown upon the water in some quiet nook, without any regularity and with no other fastening than its own natural cohesion and entanglement when one layer was thrown almost at random across another. A small hut was built upon the heap when it had acquired sufficient size, and the whole, when ready, was forced out into the stream, which brought it down at an average rate of two and a half miles per hour. If it took the ground, the only consequence was the loss of a few reeds from the bottom layer as the mass swung round and cleared itself. Snags, projecting points, or other impediments might tear off more, but nothing could stay the quiet but irresistible movement of the great raft, which, as the grass below became densely pressed and sodden, began to draw nearly 6ft. of water, and sank deeper every day; to remedy which, fresh grass was cut and thrown daily upon the upper layers. Frequently overhanging trees tore off portions, and once a large trunk lay so close to the water that it fairly swept the decks fore and aft; the occupants saved themselves by climbing over the tree, but the hut, with many valuables, was carried right away. With this exception the voyage was accomplished safely, but it was a task of great difficulty to prevent the unwieldy mass being swept by the stream into Lake Ngami, in the still waters of which it might have floated for an indefinite period without coming nearer to the shore.

The obelisk of Luxor was removed by laying a vessel ashore, with her head towards it, when the river was at its highest; the masts were lifted and shored up from the deck, so as to allow an immense packing case to be built upon the keelson; ways like those for launching a ship were built, and on them the heavy monolith was forced onward till it lay at length fairly in the vessel, occupying nearly her entire length; a deep channel cut from the vessel to the river, and at the next rise of the water she floated off. But without forgetting this, we do not remember a case of more ingenious and persevering adaptation of apparently insufficient means to great and important ends, than that of the conveyance by our countryman Layard of the great human-headed bulls and lions from the magnificent ruins in which he found them to the point of embarkation on the Tigris, and thence, by rafts so frail that we almost wonder how the ponderous masses were supported, to a place where vessels more adequate to the carriage of such a burden could receive them. It would be a pity to curtail the brief and graphic description, and we therefore give it in his own words:-

"I did not doubt that the skins, once blown up, would support the sculptures without difficulty as far as Baghdad. The journey would take eight or ten days, under favourable circumstances. But there they would require to be opened and refilled, or the rafts would scarcely sustain so heavy a weight all the way to Busrak; the voyage from Baghdad to that port being considerably longer, in point of time, than that from Mosul to Baghdad. However carefully the skins are filled, the air gradually escapes. Rafts bearing merchandise are generally detained several times during their descent to enable the raftmen to examine and refill the skins. If the sculptures rested upon only one framework, the beams being almost on a level with the water, the raftmen would be unable to get beneath them to reach the mouths of the skins, when they require replenishing, without moving the cargo. This would have been both inconvenient and difficult to accomplish; I was, therefore, desirous of raising the lion and bull as much as possible above the water, so as to leave room for the men to creep under them.

"It may interest the reader to know how these rafts, which have probably formed for ages the only means of traffic on the upper parts of the rivers of Mesopotamia, are constructed. The skins of full-grown sheep and goats are used. They are taken off with as few incisions as possible, and then dried and prepared. The air is forced in by the lungs through an aperture, which is afterwards tied up with string. A square framework, formed of poplar beams, branches of trees, and reeds, having been constructed of the size of the intended raft, the inflated skins are tied to it by osier and other twigs, the whole being firmly bound together. The raft is then removed to the water and launched. Care is taken to place the skins with their mouths upwards, that, in case any should burst or require filling, they can be easily opened by the raftmen. Upon the framework of wood are piled bales of goods and property belonging to merchants and travellers. When any person of rank or wealth descends the river in this fashion, small huts are constructed on the raft, by covering a common wooden "takht," or bedstead of the country, with a hood formed of reeds and lined with felt. In these huts the travellers live and sleep during the journey. The poorer passengers seek shade or warmth by burying themselves amongst bales of goods and other merchandise, and sit patiently, almost in one position, until they reach their destination. They carry with them a small earthen "mangal," or chafing-dish, containing a charcoal fire, which serves to light their pipes and to cook their coffee and food. The only real danger to be apprehended on the river is from the Arabs, who, when the country is in a disturbed state, invariably attack and pillage the rafts.

INFLATED FLOATS.

"The raftmen guide their rude vessels by long oars-straight poles, at the end of which a few split canes are fastened by a piece of twine. They skilfully avoid the rapids, and, seated on the bales of goods, work continually, even in the hottest sun. They will seldom travel after dark before reaching Tekrit, on account of the rocks and shoals which abound in the upper part of the river; but when they have passed that place they resign themselves, night and day, to the sluggish stream. During the floods in the spring, or after violent rains, small rafts may float from Mosul to Baghdad in about eighty-four hours; but the large rafts are generally six or seven days in performing the voyage. In summer, and when the river is low, they are frequently nearly a month in reaching their destination. When the rafts have been unloaded, they are broken up, and the beams, wood, and twigs are sold at a considerable profit, forming one of the principal branches of trade between Mosul and Baghdad. The skins are washed and afterwards rubbed with a preparation of pounded pomegranate skins, to keep them from cracking and rotting. They are then brought back, either upon the shoulders of the raftmen or upon donkeys, to Mosul or Tekrit, where the men engaged in navigation of the Tigris usually reside."

In one of the sculptures thus brought to our own country by the energetic traveller, an army is represented crossing a river, and the soldiers are supported each by an inflated goatskin held under the chest, while one of the legs being led upwards to the swimmer's mouth enables him to keep it distended, should any air escape. In making these bags, the only sewing necessary is at the aperture through which the animal is skinned; the neck, cut close to the head, may be tightly bound up with a thong, and an over-hand knot cast in the three legs; the fourth being left with a tube for re-inflation.

Sir Samuel Baker says, when speaking of crossing the Atbara River, "I had eight inflated skins attached to the bedstead, on which I lashed our large circular sponging bath, 3ft. 8in. in diameter. This was perfectly safe for my wife, and dry for the baggage; the watertight iron box that contained the gunpowder was towed as a pinnace behind the raft. Four hippopotamus hunters harnessed themselves as tug steamers, and there were relays of swimmers. The raft answered well, and would support about 300lb.; the sponging bath would carry 190lb."

American portable boat.

Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of the United States service, is the inventor of a very useful form of portable boat. It was used in several expeditions, in Oregon and Washington territory, with much advantage. It is thus described:-

"It consists of an exceedingly light framework of thin and narrow boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by hinges, the different, sections folding into so small a compass as to be conveniently carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet of stout cotton canvas or duck, secured to the gunwales with a cord running diagonally back, and put through eyelet holes in the upper edge. When first placed in the water, the boat leaks a little, but the canvas soon swells, so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this boat is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted to the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are liable to rise above a fordable depth, and where the allowance of transportation is small. It may be put together or taken apart and packed in a very few minutes, and one mule suffices to transport a boat, with all its appurtenances, capable of sustaining ten men. Should the canvas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a patch, and it does not rot or crack, like india-rubber or gutta-percha; moreover it is not affected by changes of climate or temperature."

COLLAPSIBLE BOAT.

Collapsible boat.

We have not seen Colonel Buchanan's boat, but we remember one perhaps not very dissimilar, it was, in fact, a collapsible boat-the gunwales, the keel, and all the intermediate pieces being exactly alike, and made of ?in. plank from 4in. to 6in. wide; these were hinged together at the two ends, just as are the frames of the oval reticules, and covered with stout canvas; the thwarts have hinges below the centre, from which also the third board, serving as a stanchion, reaches downward to rest upon the keel. There is a ring-bolt near the centre of each of the midship thwarts, and when the boat is hoisted out of the water by tackles at either end, a couple of small lines from these rings jerk up the centre of the thwarts and allow the gunwales and all the corresponding boards on either side to fall down beside the keel, as shown in the upper figure of our illustration (p. 155). There are also ring-bolts to the gunwales, and a couple of lines from these are held fast while the boat is lowered; the gunwales rise, and a man sitting upon the thwarts presses them into their place and the boat assumes its proper shape: of course the segments of plank below the gunwales have to be cut a little shorter at each end as they come nearer to the keel, or the boat would not shut up on its hinges. A boat 4ft. wide would collapse into a width of not more than 1ft. Such a frame could be readily taken to pieces by withdrawing the bolts of the hinges, and if each piece, supposing the boat to be 4ft. wide and 16ft. long were hinged in its centre, it would not be much too long to carry on a mule, except the country were more than ordinarily difficult, when it might be hinged in three lengths.

At the meeting of the British Association, in Birmingham, we saw some model boats of good form, but with very little projection of keel or stem or stern post, so that one might be fitted into the other without rising more than a few inches above the gunwale of the first; the thwarts of the lower one are stowed between the two very conveniently, and three or four may be thus packed, the uppermost, however, retaining all her fittings in readiness for immediate use.

Canoe birch.

The aborigines of many countries make use of the bark of certain trees for the purpose of canoe building. The most important of these is the canoe birch (Betula papyracea); its range may be estimated at 37° north to 43° south. Trees of this description not unfrequently grow to 70ft. in height, and are proportionately thick, so that sheets of bark of very large size can be readily stripped from them. The bark canoes of the Canadians and Indian traders are often of a very large size.

In the absence of forest conservators, economic considerations go for very little. It may be convenient, when canoe building or repairing is the object, to "fall" the tree, and, in doing so, care must be taken that the bark shall not be rent or bruised, either by fracture of the tree or by falling across a rock or stump, while the log ought to lie with both ends somewhat supported, so that the required sheet of bark may not be crushed between it and the ground. Perhaps it will be found generally easier to detach the bark while the tree is standing, and in this case a cut must be made all round the tree at the lower end of the sheet; the most perfect side should be left for the bottom of the canoe, and the longitudinal slit should be so made as to cut right through any defective portion which may thus be cut out with the least possible waste of material. If the tree has an inclination, it will be easier work to make the slit on the upper side. The bark should be detached by broad round-edged spuds of soft wood, thrust gently and cautiously between it and the tree; and it may also be previously loosened by striking it with a broad log or mallet on the outside, taking care not to break its texture. Steps may be cut in the wood to stand in, and hand-holds also as the work proceeds; and the lower part of the bark should be made fast with cord or slips of bark, passed loosely round, so that it may not swing clear of the tree and split the upper part before it is finally detached.

CANADIAN BARK CANOE.

Canadian bark canoe.

The sheet should now be taken to a plot of level ground, carefully spread out with the inside downward, and the outside should be cleaned from any knots, excrescences, or hard and brittle layers that increase its weight without adding to its strength; and it should then be cut nearly to the form shown in the sketch (Fig. 1). A sufficient number of ribs or hoops of light flexible wood should be provided, and great care should be taken, in bending it, not to split or unduly to force any part so as to make an unsightly protuberance, which would also most probably become a leak. The holes should be carefully bored along the edges that come in contact, and they may be sewn with fibres from the roots of pine trees or from small cedar twigs, and rendered water-tight by the use of pine-tree gum. Flexible poles or laths are then stitched in for gunwales or thwart stringers, and the canoe is more or less tastefully trimmed off and ornamented, according to the taste of the builder, as in Fig. 2 (p. 157).

Nothing can be lighter or handier than these canoes, but their very lightness and want of "hold on the water" makes them difficult for Englishmen to handle until experience has been their instructor.

Queen Charlotte's Island canoe.

Canoes of this description are wonderfully buoyant, and draw very little water; and, when managed by skilful hands, few boats are more reliable. Our friend, Mr. F. Poole, who has spent many years among the Indians of North-West America, and is a canoeman of no ordinary skill, has recently completed a tour of extraordinary extent and interest, paddling fearlessly, and alone, far out to sea. The dimensions of the canoe he uses, which was made expressly for him by the Indians of Queen Charlotte's Island, are as follows: Length, 15ft.; width across beam, 3?ft.; depth, 15in.; weight, 100lb.

BIRCH BARK CANOE OF QUEEN CHARLOTTE'S ISLAND.

In her Mr. Poole started from Liverpool, paddling to New Brighton, from thence to Southport, Blackpool, Fleetwood, Dutton Sands, Whitehaven, Kirkcudbright, Whitehorn, Port William and Glen Luce. From thence by the use of wheels-two pairs of which, composed of iron, mounted on iron axles, are kept, until required, stowed away in the canoe-Mr. Poole proceeded overland to Stranraer; from thence paddled along the coast and up the river to Glasgow; then by canal to Grangemouth, and by sea to Leith. For two nights and the greater part of two days Mr. Poole was out of sight of land, and the voyage was prosecuted during the prevalence of the equinoctial gales. Such of our readers as may contemplate canoe voyaging will do well to borrow a few hints from Mr. Poole's equipment. A powerful bull's-eye lamp was always carried, lashed fast to the stem at night, and a mariner's compass was provided to steer by.

The wheels before referred to are extremely useful in many ways. They are like those of an ordinary perambulator, only of light wrought iron; they are 1ft. in diameter; the axle is also of wrought iron, ?in. square, and long enough to carry the wheels clear of the canoe's sides when mounted on them. To travel the canoe on dry land, the axles, each covered with a strong common pillow, are brought under the fore and after portions of the canoe, like the axles of a long narrow carriage. Rope lashings are now brought from the thwarts down to the axle bars, through which iron belaying pins pass; these keep the lashings from shifting, and keep all secure when the canoe is pushed or drawn onwards. The wheels are an immense assistance in beaching the canoe and getting her above high-water mark, when there is but one voyager. They also serve as ballast, and are useful for a number of camping and make-shift purposes.

The paddle shown in the accompanying illustration, kindly furnished by Mr. Poole, is of the exact form requisite to obtain perfect efficiency. It is composed of red cedar, and is exactly one-tenth, diminished scale.

CEDAR-BARK CANOE.

Cedar-bark canoe.

SHOE CANOE.

The bark of the cedar (Thuja gigantea) is also much used by certain Indians of North-West America for canoe building; but the form usually made from it differs materially from that just described. The cedar-bark canoes are in shape much like some of our iron-clad rams, having projecting beaks, or prows, almost in a line with their keels. The Indian paddling one of these frail craft, sits, or rather squats, at one extreme end of the bottom, which has the effect of tilting the bow end up in the air, burying the stern end deeply in the water. The sharp tail-like point thus immersed seems to impart speed and capability of evolution to a remarkable degree; much practice is required before the exact poise and adjustment of weight are acquired. The Indians, who half live in their canoes, manage them with extraordinary dexterity, ascend and descend rapid rivers, and cross wide stretches of lake fearlessly. The form of these canoes, and of the bark sheet used for making them, is shown in the above illustration. The mode of sinking the stern of a canoe is also had recourse to by the Rockingham Bay savages, who manage the so-called shoe canoe with much skill. The frame is of rough wicker-work, the covering of hide, and the two short shovel-shaped paddles made use of are shown in our illustration. A canoe of this kind is very easily made, and is not difficult to manage.

FUEGIAN CANOE.

Fuegian canoe.

We have just seen a small canoe sent from Terra del Fuego by the Governor of the Falkland Islands to the Royal Geographical Society. It is small, and was paddled by a girl eight years of age; it is chiefly interesting as showing how small pieces of bark may be utilised. It is about 8ft. long, 22in. wide, and 18in. or 20in. deep; the centrepiece of the bottom is nearly 3ft. long and 10in. wide, and to this are stitched two pieces, each about 4ft. long, tapering to a point, and curving upward to a high peak at either end. The sides are pieces of bark nearly 8ft. long and 18in. deep, straight on the upper edge, and cut to the curve of the bottom on the lower. The whole are stitched together with wood fibre, for which sometimes strips of whalebone are substituted, and caulked with the fibre of the wild celery. The boat is kept in shape by ribs of winter bark twigs, not thicker than the little finger, and packed closely side by side through the whole length; nine small sticks lashed athwart the gunwales keep them in their proper shape, and a sheet of bark midships serves to sustain a patch of clay on which to keep a small fire. A bundle of weapons of the chase accompany this canoe.

The spears are pointed with bone, and the barbed one used for fish and cetaceans is only shipped loosely into the shaft, to which it is attached by a lanyard, so as to remain fast during the struggles of the animal; while that used for birds is serrated, and is firmly fastened into the shaft.

AUSTRALIAN BARK CANOE.

Australian bark canoe.

The tea-tree bark is sometimes used in Australia for canoes. We have seen a length of it roughly tied up at the ends, and strengthened a little by poles along the gunwales, in use at Moreton Bay, as shown in our illustrationEB. It is just possible to make the bark of the gum tree answer the purpose in the absence of better material. We have often searched in Africa for a tree with bark fit to make a canoe of, but never succeeded in finding one. Along the eastern coast of Australia, especially towards Torres Strait, we frequently fell in with canoes, some with outriggers and others double. They were generally long straight logs, of very little breadth or depth; and the advantage of this seemed to be that though the ripple would frequently wash into them, yet, if they pitched ever so little, their great length and shallowness would tilt out the greater portion of the water. The outriggers were mostly logs of wood sharpened at either end, and with pegs set up in them, so that the outrigger beams might not dip into the water and impede the motion of the canoe.

MANGROVE FLOATS.

When we reached the Victoria River we found that the natives were accustomed to support themselves in crossing on logs of the light mangrove wood, either singly or tied up in bundles. The part near the roots seemed to be the favourite, as the stumps of the roots formed pegs on which to hang their spears, skins, or other possessions. The wood of the milk bush, which is about half the specific gravity of cork, is much used by the natives of equatorial Africa for the above purpose.

Long canoes.

At Shupanga, on the Zambesi, we have seen dug-out canoes, 50ft. long and about 5ft. wide and deep; at all events, a tall man standing beside them did not stoop much when he rested his arms upon the gunwale. These were hollowed and roughly shaped in their native forests, and hauled along nearly thirty miles, on rollers, by the long rope-like stems of the vines and creepers common in tropical forests. They were made only for the Portuguese. The upper part of the bows expanded into a platform sufficiently large for the chief boatman to stand on, while the stern was cut into an imitation of a run and dead wood, with a couple of holes in the after part, to which a rudder was secured by lashings. Nothing can be better for hollowing a canoe than the adze, but our Kroomen used a broad spud or chisel on a staff about 6ft. long, driven in a manner which will be best understood by a glance at the statue of "Michael overthrowing Satan." The Krooman's method of baling is characteristic. Should the canoe fill, all hands jump overboard, seize the gunwales, and sally her fore and aft till the water flies out at either end and leaves her absolutely free. We have seen a canoeman, near Lake Ngami, walk to one end of his leaky craft and, thus depressing it, cause the water to flow towards him, when, making his broad foot do duty for a scoop, by a succession of vigorous kicks, he soon had his canoe as free as he desired.

MASSOOLAH BOATS.

Massoolah boats.

In many parts of the world, boats of almost any size are built without metal fastenings, and the Massoolah boat of Madras may be taken as a fair type of those which are sewn or laced together. It will be seen in our illustration, copied by permission from a model in the United Service Museum, that the bottom boards are flat and form an oval elongated and pointed at the ends, so that the side planks curve naturally to meet the stem and stern-post, and give the boat an easy sheer. They are sewn together with coir yarn (or cocoa-nut husk fibre), the stitches crossing over a wadding of coir or straw, which presses on the seam and prevents much leakage. They are very elastic and give to the shock as they take the ground in the surf, which runs sometimes nearly 16ft. high; they are from 30ft. to 35ft. long, 10ft. or 11ft. wide, and 7ft. or 8ft. in depth; they pull double banked, six oars on a side, made of long rough poles with oval pieces of board lashed on the ends; they are steered by an oar. Our illustration shows also the catamaran or log float, on which the natives will pass to and from the shore when no other craft, not even the Massoolah boat, would venture. It must be remembered, however, that the men are themselves nearly amphibious, and care as little for being washed off their rafts as so many frogs; while the letters or small parcels they carry are kept dry only by being worn in a kind of oil-cloth turban.

Norwegian boats.

We have seen very nice boats built in Norway with dowels instead of nails; they were clinker built, and the dowels were about ?in., or fully as thick as the planking. A number of rods, from 3ft. to 4ft. long, are planed up to the required size, and cut into lengths say, when two thicknesses of ?in. plank are to be clinched, to 1?in., or, when the two planks and a timber of perhaps 1in. are to be fastened, to 2?in., so that both ends may project a little beyond the wood they are to fasten; the dowel is then split at each end with a sharp chisel, taking care that the cut is made at right angles to the grain of the plank or rib, wedges are driven in, and the end, being slightly spread out by the use of the clinch hammer, is trimmed off not too close; the wedges should be all neatly cut with a fine saw, and by sawing them in breadths from a board, and then splitting them to the required size, labour may be greatly economised. The holes should be bored with a sharp centre-bit; and if the dowels fit tightly the wedges may be dispensed with, as the ends will spread sufficiently under the clinch hammer without breaking the grain.

In building, if any difficulty should be found in drawing down the end of the plank to the stem, it will be advisable, after having fitted it carefully, to slack up the centre, let the end come to its place, fasten it, and then again bend the plank downwards. In some boats, especially in the navy, the planks do not run fore and aft, but two thin layers are crossed over each other diagonally, and clinched together; this leaves the outside perfectly smooth, and is perhaps the strongest known method of boat building. In planing up the edges of planks, &c., it is absolutely necessary to have a vice of some kind, and nothing is better than a tree vice, unless you have a blacksmith's. Saw off a young tree from 6in. to 8in. thick, at about 3?ft. from the ground; saw the stump down the middle as low as you can; bind the lower part tightly with thongs of raw hide to prevent its splitting, then insert wedges to open the upper part, put your planks in, withdraw the wedges, and it will hold tight enough. It is as well to cut the upper part of the opening sufficiently wide to admit an inch plank, as short pieces can easily be put in to fill up should you wish to hold a thinner one.

Portable steel boat.

We have already mentioned the principle on which Mr. E. D. Young's portable steel boat for the Livingstone Search Expedition was built; and although, as we then said, none but a skilled workman could hope to turn up the edges of a curved sheet of metal, we think the principle might be applied to a flat-bottomed boat by merely snipping the flanges at the turn of the bilge, and bending upward the sides at any convenient angle; by cutting these more and more diagonally from the centre, the boat might be tapered to each end-not, indeed, in a true curve, but in a succession of short straight lines, which would tolerably represent one.

The number of pieces composing the "Search"-the boat used in the expedition sent in quest of Dr. Livingstone-were as follows: Thirty-six side pieces of steel, each being a load for one man; the midship piece required 2; the stern piece, 3; the bow piece, 3; the mast, 2; the boom, 2; the sails, 2; chain cable, 6; anchor, 1; and the whole with provisions, luggage, &c., made up 180 loads.

Captain Faulkner, who, as a volunteer, accompanied Mr. Young on the Search Expedition, has determined on returning with a party of ardent hunters and explorers, and an engineer, to Lake Nyassa, and for this purpose an iron steamer has been built 50ft. long, 5?ft. deep, and 11?ft. broad. The little craft, appropriately named the "Faugh-a-ballagh," is composed of 75 sections, put together with 8000 screws, so that she may be carried, as was the "Search," past the rapids and cataracts of the Shire River.

American life raft.

The American life raft "Nonpareil," which recently made the voyage across the Atlantic, may be taken as a successful application of the tubular system. It will be seen that she was constructed of three parallel inflatable tubes, covered with stout canvas, connected by breadths of the same, and with a rectangular frame laid over all to support the masts and rudder fittings; but the sketch is introduced here also to show the use of the droge, by which the little craft may in effect be anchored in the open sea, or at least may have her drift effectually checked, while the sea itself is broken before it reaches her. The droge in the present instance is of canvas, stretched on a large hoop with four lines, so attached to its circumference that when the strain comes on it it stands vertically in the water, and opposes the resistance of its entire surface. The oars or mast, and sails of a boat, will also answer this purpose; and we have heard of one instance in which the imperilled crew added also a number of the skins of freshly-killed seals, the oil working out of which calmed the water for a considerable distance. It is necessary to watch the length of the sea, so that the boat may be veered as far from the droge or raft as it will serve to protect her against the breaking waves. We have heard the captain of a vessel say that he would never incur the risk of wearing in a gale, but would rather sacrifice some spar or piece of lumber to bring the ship's head to the wind. In doing this, the hawser would be carried round from the droge on the weather bow, under the bobstays and bowsprit rigging to the lee bow, and finally to the quarter; the droge would be thrown over, sufficient line paid out, and then held on to till the ship's head came to the wind; the strain would be then changed for a moment to the lee bow, and then to the quarter, whence it would be cut away as the ship fell off upon the other tack. A spar held by a hawser and bridle, with a stout sail bent to it-the clews, or lower corners, being weighted with shot, lead, or iron, to make them heavy-forms an excellent droge for a small craft to lie to under.

Temporary repairs of vessels.

Although this subject may seem almost beyond the province of our work, it is by no means improbable that explorers may have to turn their attention to it, or that shipwrecked crews, or dwellers on a lonely coast, may have to repair or build small craft for themselves. We have seen first-class waggons built by missionaries, and others have built vessels; and the reader may remember with advantage the description given by Ulysses of his laying down side by side ten or a dozen pine trees more or less smoothed off as a foundation on which to build his upper works.

During the progress of the North Australian Expedition, we were ascending the Victoria River with our little schooner, the "Tom Tough." There was little or no wind, and with the boat ahead towing and the lead going we were drifting up with a strong flood-tide, and the captain, elated by success, and anxious to make the most of his opportunity, kept going onward instead of prudently anchoring while the tide was still rising. In consequence of this, when the vessel touched the ground, there was no subsequent rise of water to float her off; indeed, it was remarked that the water began to fall while the tide was still running upward, and she was left at low water on the 27th of September, 1855, on a mud bank, with her bows uncomfortably propped up by a projecting rock.

On the 29th she floated; but the flood-tide was so nearly done, that we had no time to choose an anchorage, and the schooner grounding with the ebb, parted her chain cable and heeled over with the force of the tide till we could barely stand upon her decks.

Day after day the schooner drifted to and fro upon this sand-bank, sometimes moving a length or two, and sometimes only a few feet during a tide; the sand scoured out from beneath her bow and stern, leaving holes with 6ft. or more of water there, while hillocks accumulated under her in midship; and the sand seemed to travel so evenly with her, that the usual criterion-a hand lead, allowed to trail upon the ground-was of no service in enabling us to estimate the distance she had moved.

On the 10th of October the decks had rifted, the combings of the main hatch had started up, the starboard side between the masts was hogged up 18in., and at the turn of the bilge, where the floor timbers join the ribs, one of the planks had split for 15ft. or more, leaving spaces into which the flat hand might easily be passed.

We laid broad strips of blanket and sheepskin well tarred on the principal rents, and nailed thin planks over them (Fig. 8, p. 170), but in another day or two she was just as bad on the other side; her stern was peaked into the air, while her bows dipped about 7ft. into a hole, the water pouring out of the fresh rifted planking as the tide fell. The mainmast rose up through the partners, so that we were obliged to slack off the rigging, and it became a question whether the stanchion under the main hatch should be knocked away to prevent its bursting up the deck, or whether it should remain so that the strength of the deck might keep the bottom a little longer from breaking.

On the 25th we again floated, after nearly a month of straining to and fro upon the sand-banks, and drifted rather than navigated the vessel up to the camp we had established below Steep-head.

Captain Gourlay with his crew, and some of the expedition men, found suitable trees some little distance up the river at Timber Creek, which, however, after a rather exciting adventure with some wandering natives, acquired the name of Cut-Stick Creek instead. Two long heavy gum trees as straight as possible were selected, brought to the vessel, and laid as sister keelsons (Fig. 2) alongside the real one, which, as well as all the original framework, is marked Fig. 1 in our illustration. Three or four pair of heavy crooks, each representing the half of a floor timber (Fig. 3), were then laid on the inner skin, with the inner ends abutting on the sister keelson, and the outer reaching up above the junction of the ribs with the floor heads. Heavy riders (Fig. 4) were placed upon them crossing the three keelsons, and were secured by clamps (Fig. 5) made of the tires of our dray wheels, which we had no hope of being able to put to their proper use. Being now above the rise and fall of the tide we could not beach the vessel, and, therefore, the frame could only be bolted to the true sides above the water line (Fig. 6), but it was pressed down upon the bottom not only by its own weight but by stanchions (Fig. 7) between it and the deck beams.

The schooner being detained for repairs, it was decided to undertake an expedition to the Albert River in the long boat; and thus, by reaching Mr. Gregory in time to assure him that a vessel was coming, prevent his starting for the colony with insufficient supplies; Mr. George Phibbs, the overseer of the expedition, and Mr. Graham, the mate of the "Messenger," volunteering for the trip, we commenced our preparations. The boat was cleaned, repainted, the leaks stopped; and two inflatable tubes were made, each of them of one piece of canvas, 14ft. long, lined with waterproofed calico, folded so that the two sides should come together, a rope along the seam, with eyes turned in at the corners, to make it fast by, and, with one of the screw valves from our worn-out boat (p. 48), let into the after end, to receive the nozzle of the bellows. These we at first intended to stretch beneath the thwarts, inside, but eventually laced them outside each gunwale, where they were less in the way, and, when kept in a state of semi-inflation, projected sufficiently to prevent a great deal of the ripple of the sea washing into the boat, and this advantage we made the most of when we were fairly at sea, by fitting light bamboo stanchions forward, and securing the tubes to them, so as to make a kind of raised wash streak round the bows.

BOAT FITTED WITH INFLATED TUBES.

We left the vessel on the 23rd of October off New Year's Island, and at first had fine weather with good working breezes, but in a few days strong adverse gales came on. On the 2nd of November we worked all day clawing off a lee shore, the sea raging furiously over the shallow bottom; but our boat, though only 18ft. long and 6ft. beam, behaved well, and we weathered the rocks by less than a quarter of a mile after sunset. Darkness came on at once, and, as we dare not run in for shelter, we made the boat snug and hove to under foresail and mainsail all night. We ran through between the Crocodile islands, the crest of the short sea behind us foaming around our quarters, while our bowsprit was actually dipping in the next, and began to fear that we should have to pass the islands without finding a shelter, when Phibbs volunteered to swim ashore. We let go our carronade as an anchor, and ran in to the full length of the line; he sprang overboard, and with some difficulty reached the shore, where he soon found a quiet little nook to which he beckoned us to steer.

We will only add that on the 17th of November, after having sailed nearly 750 miles, we reached the mouth of the Albert River, in the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Sails and their substitutes.

We cannot dismiss the subject of boats without appending a few remarks on such simple forms of sails as are likely to be of service in such small craft as a traveller might possess, and we shall take, as the maximum, one of those swift and handy fore and aft schooners in which the Americans push their trade in all quarters of the world. Each lower mast and topmast would most likely be in one piece, combining great strength with neatness, and obviating the necessity for much staying. The bowsprit is also of a single piece; the sails are a jib from the foremast head to the bowsprit end, a forestaysail set to the stem head, a foresail and mainsail on gaffs made to lower when the sail is reefed or taken in; the foot of the mainsail is always extended by a boom, and that of the foresail sometimes; if they are laced to the boom, as in the yacht "America," which had booms even to the foot of her jibs, the sails sit flatter and better on a wind, but if they are not, there is the advantage of being able to reduce the sails without the trouble of reefing, by tricing up the foot; gaff topsails may be either jib-headed, like the fore, or on a gaff, like the main, in Fig. 1. The mainstay causes some little difficulty; if it goes from mast to mast, the tack and sheet of the fore gaff topsail must be passed over to leeward of it when the vessel goes about; if it leads down to the deck there must be two parts, one on each side the foresail, and the lee one ought to be slacked, and the weather one set up on each tack. If a foreyard, or rather a cross-jack, is carried, a flying squaresail, half the width of the yard, may be sent up on the weather side, and a topsail may be set in the same manner, the fore and aft sails supplying canvas enough on the lee side.

The cutter (No. 2) has a jib, a foresail on the stay, and a mainsail; the jib topsail runs with grummets on the topmast stay, but the halyards only reach the lowermast head; a lug-headed gaff topsail gives opportunity for a greater spread of canvas.

The boat (No. 3) is rigged with foresail and spritsail. An eye in the peak of the latter receives the upper point of the sprit, while the lower end is set into the eye of a snorter, a bight of rope passing round the mast and tightened chiefly by the strain of the sail upon it. Sometimes it is pushed up by hand while the sail shakes, so as to set it properly up, but it is better to have a small tackle as seen on page 171 to set it up with.

No. 4 has shoulder-of-mutton sails, the peaks of which are bent on to small taper yards which slide up and down on and abaft the lower masts like gunter topmasts; this facilitates the reefing of the sails, and also the setting of the jib from the foremast head.

No. 5 is a lugger, the yards are slung in the thirds, the shortest and thickest arm is forward, and the longest tapers aft; the foremost leach of the sail is very strongly roped, so that the tack holds down the forearm and elevates the peak. Sometimes in well-manned vessels the lugs are dipped so as to pass to leeward of the mast whenever they go about, and in this case the tack may be bowsed down considerably in front of the mast and a large sail carried; but in short-handed craft the tacks are brought down to the mast, and the foresail and mizen are set on one side and the mainsail on the other, and are not dipped. The after leach of the jib must be cut so as to go clear of the foreyard, the topmasts to slide abaft the lower masts; and there is always some difficulty in setting a fore topsail, as there must either be a double tack to pass the sail over the jib halyard in going about, or its fore leach must remain to leeward of it.

The lateen (No. 6) has triangular sails with very long taper yards, the head and fore leach becoming one; indeed, if there be any distinct fore leach, the sail becomes an ill-shaped lug, and not a lateen. The masts are somewhat short; sometimes mere stumps, but then the halyards and the tacks must be enormously strong to counterpoise the immense length of the yard.

The proa sail (Figs. 7 and 8, p. 173), a triangle spread upon two bamboos, hitched upon a stump mast in small boats, we have described at p. 135. No. 9 is a modification of it, by which a boat sets jib and mainsail in one, the angle formed by the yard and boom becomes more acute at each reef as indicated by the lines. It would be difficult, however, to work the boat without a small mizen to help her round in staying. No. 10 is the shoulder-of-mutton sail, set on a single taper yard or mast.

Palm leaves are sometimes used as sails; our sketch represents three or more cocoanut leaves, so woven together as to present a surface to receive the wind. Blankets and articles of clothing are used in emergencies. Oars are set up, and a boat will gather considerable way under them. Planks, the broader and flatter the better, are excellent substitutes, and may be trimmed at pleasure. It must not be forgotten that, however graceful in art and poetry the bellying canvas may be, the chief object of the sailmaker is to get it "to sit like a board."

Reefing of sails from the sides.

Sometimes when a sail is split, or otherwise rendered unserviceable, it is desirable to use another for a substitute without spoiling it by cutting. We remember reading of a vessel in which the topsail was split in a heavy gale; a spare foresail was got out and stout bands sewed on it, from the clews to the reef-band, diminishing upwards to the width the topsail head ought to be; eyelet holes were worked in, points or lacings inserted, and the sail, thus reduced, sent up to do duty as a topsail.

Captain (now Admiral Sir E.) Belcher, when in command of H.M.S. "Sulphur," made use of a very clever expedient for imparting motion to his vessel when the wind failed. He constructed a couple of bolts, with stout umbrella framework covered with canvas at their heads, and with their butts so thickened as to fit loosely into the bow guns. A line was attached to each butt, and one was given in charge to the port and the other to the starboard watch; the first was fired to a good distance ahead, and as soon as the line was hauled upon the frame expanded and opposed its full resistance, so that, as it could not be drawn backwards through the water, the vessel must begin to move. Before this was hauled in the next was fired, the ship would increase her rate of progress, and, the impetus being once acquired, she would "hold her way," so that eventually the men would have little more to do than gather in the slack of the line. No sailor likes the inaction of a calm, and besides this the captain had judged rightly in exciting the emulation of his men by giving one to each watch, and further stimulating it by an occasional glass of grog to the hardest working side, so that the cry of the port watch would be, "Haul away, and run her up to the umbrella before the starbowlines get theirs laid out," and vice versa, till sometimes a speed of four knots an hour was obtained. Thus was the good ship hauled out of many a belt of calms, and brought into the region of the winds, which might be only a few miles distant, while other vessels not so provided might have lain becalmed for weeks; and not only this, but her position in a bay or anchorage could be shifted at pleasure, and she became almost independent of wind or extraneous assistance by this ingenious expedient.

Paddles worked by mill sails have been proposed; but of these it will be sufficient to remark that the power of the paddles to drive the vessel's head to wind will be less than that of the wind to drive her backward by the full amount of all that is expended in overcoming the friction of the machinery; in every other position the wind on the sails would do its work without the paddles.

Hints in emergencies.

A Prussian vessel, with the leaks gaining on her and her crew exhausted, was saved by lashing a spar across the mainmast, with one end projecting overboard with a barrel half full of water fast to it, so as to rise and fall with the sea. The pump brakes were made fast to the spar, and the vessel was thus kept afloat, while the crew were relieved from their labour.

A boat has been known to come ashore safe through a heavy sea by means of a handful of oil judiciously thrown over by one of the men whenever a wave threatened to break near her; and Captain Basil Hall relates how one of his boats was hove to all night under a droge of all her spars and sails and two or three seal skins, the oil of which working out calmed the water for a considerable distance.

Instances of this kind might be indefinitely multiplied; but we note only a few as suggestions. No amount that we could give would supply the want of presence of mind and the ready power of adapting the means at hand to the emergency.

Our space will not allow us to go into all the details of boat sailing, but we must find room for one or two general rules. In seeking to land through breakers, which must always be effected by the oars, wait just outside them till you find the heaviest roller coming in; then give way, and come in upon it, with your boat's bow all but overhanging its crest, and, as it lands, you jump out and haul your boat beyond the power of its reflux. Some crews are in the habit of giving two or three powerful strokes just before they reach the shore, and then pitching their oars simultaneously as far from them as possible, picking them up again when they have secured their boat. It is well, however, to know that there is no current to set the oars out to sea before doing this.

In coming off face the breakers boldly, but judiciously watch the smaller waves, and give her good way through them. Keep your boat's head on to the sea, and never let her take a breaker more than two points on either bow.

Trim the sails so that when brought to the wind the boat will very nearly steer herself, and she will attain her utmost speed. The action of the rudder has always a slightly-retarding influence, but if there is any want of balance let it be on the side of ardency or tendency to fly up in the wind, so that she may carry a little weather helm rather than want helping up by a lee one, and thus, in case of sudden squalls, the boat will, as if by instinct, obey the first touch of the lee helm, and, shaking the wind out of her sails, will right herself. The main sheet of an open boat should never be made fast, but held either by the steersman, or some one near him, in readiness to ease off. A squall seldom comes so suddenly that the first puff, if well watched, will not help the boat into the wind before the full strength comes; but on the coast of Australia we have known a squall come so suddenly through the dead calm of the night that it struck us at once like a blow from a sledge-hammer, and, though we had taken all the usual precautions, the sea was pouring like a jet-black cataract flecked with diamonds over 8ft. of the lee gunwale before the boat came to the wind; and we would say, therefore, if there is not an air to bring the boat's head up when you expect a squall, help her with the sweep of an oar into the best position to receive it.

If you want to carry on sail do not attempt to stiffen the boat by making all the crew sit to windward; for, should the mast break, as is not unlikely with the increased strain, nothing can prevent her capsizing; let them sit in the bottom. In the way of ballast, nothing can be better than bags nearly filled with fresh water. They will assume the form of any place you want to stow them in, and will not sink the boat if she should fill; in fact, being lighter than salt water, they would impart a trifling buoyancy.

Temporary rudders.

The loss of the rudder, an accident which is by no means so unfrequent at sea as may be imagined, involves also, for a time at least, the loss of control over the vessel's course. Even in the open sea this must be attended with considerable peril; but when it happens in the vicinity of rocks or shoals, and the vessel has not sea-room, the danger becomes appalling. The careful and vigilant trimming of the sails is the readiest means of regaining command of the vessel, and we believe the "Wager" was extricated from a most perilous position by this alone; but it is a work of immense labour, and harasses the crew severely. A stream cable payed out astern, and veered to either quarter, is sometimes used; or, if the accident should occur in moderate weather, by striking on a bar, the jolly boat with the plug out may be lowered and towed astern, but both these plans check the speed of the vessel, and are only useful when they can be made to impede one side more than the other; and that this is not the true principle of steering is known to every butcher's boy, who apologises for wearing but one spur by saying "if one side of his horse goes the other must." The rudder may be considered as a continuation of the keel, capable of moving on a hinge to an angle of 22?° on either side, and when the vessel moves forward, and the helm, for instance, is put to port, the water impinging on the starboard side of the rudder is reflected from it at an equal square to that of its incidence, and the resulting force tends to drive the stern to port and incline the head to starboard. But as the force acts in the direction of a line midway between the angles of incidence and of reflection, it has also a retarding tendency, and if the helm were put over to an angle of 45° the greater part of the power would be expended in stopping rather than in steering the vessel. If a ship could be made so flexible as to be converted like a fish into the segment of a circle either way at pleasure, the very perfection of steering would be attained, and the rudder is merely the best imitation of this that can be devised.

Our illustration shows one expedient for the remedy of the misfortunes we have named. A warp or cable is faked down upon the deck in lengths equal to that of the required rudder, all the parts are then so closely pressed together that it resembles a board of the required breadth; it is then stiffened by longitudinal and cross bars, a weight is attached to the bottom, and a tiller projects aft, from the extremity of which the steering tackles (A) lead in over each quarter. When lowered into its place, the heel is confined to the stern-post by chains or hawsers leading to the gangway on either side, and in the present instance ropes are reeved through the gudgeons on the stern-post. Sometimes two parts of the cable are left longer than the rest to come up the rudder trunk and form the neck of the rudder, a short spar passed through the bight on deck serves to suspend the whole. Very frequently, however, when the rudder goes, the gudgeons, and perhaps also part of the stern-post, are carried away, and it then becomes necessary to devise some plan which shall supply their loss.

Several expedients are given in the Nautical Magazine for 1836, and from these we extract two or three examples. A spar, such as the spanker-boom or jibboom, is first passed over the stern, secured to the centre of the taffrail by temporary "partners," and to the heel of the stern-post by stout guys leading forward to the gangways on either side; the gaff is then fitted on this, just as it would be on a mast, and one of the smallest and stoutest storm staysails is laced, with the head downwards, to the upright spar, and also to the gaff, the foot of the sail being cut off, if it be too large. It is then hauled down to the lower end by a halyard previously reeved, and the gaff, which should go a little below the surface of the water, is hoisted until the sail sits "as flat" as a board. If greater power is thought necessary, the outer end of the gaff can be sawn vertically down the centre, and boards clinched in, as shown in the sketch (Fig. 3); or either the sail or boards might be used separately. The ship is steered by guys leading from near the end of the gaff over each quarter. Sometimes the principle of the steering oar is adopted: a spar, with planks fastened on its outer end, is got over, and the foremost end is fitted to the stern by ring-bolts or lashings, so as to allow it to work freely without too much play. The outer end is kept down either by a lower guy or by a piece of pig ballast or other weight; and if a topping-lift be attached, leading to a boom over the stern and thence to the mizen topmast-head, the oar may be lifted out of the water when one stroke has been completed, carried back again to the other side, and thus bring the ship's head round by a succession of sweeps.

Sometimes it is necessary to make a temporary stern-post, and the spare lower cap (which, however, we may remark, is generally stowed away where it is least likely to be found on an emergency) can be fitted on this by enlarging the masthead hole and securing it, as before, by lower guys. A topmast, with its heel upwards, may be passed down through it, and such additional spars or planking bolted on as will give the needful increase of breadth. The surface should be as smooth as circumstances permit, so that the water may glance off readily; the fid-hole will then receive the tiller, but the spar must be well banded or lashed round to prevent its splitting with the strain, or perhaps breaking off where the sheave-hole weakens it.

Scarfing or fishing of broken spars.

The captain of our battered little vessel had always some rough and ready expedient at his finger-ends. When one of the iron davits of the quarter boat was bent by a collision, he extemporised a forge with some pig ballast, on deck, and, though the planks beneath were somewhat scorched, he rendered the davit again effective. Once, when running before the wind, the mainsail jibed in consequence of careless steering, and the boom, being fastened by a "lazy guy," a slovenly shift a little too common among us, broke short off; however, a good stout plank was found, cut into four pieces, which were laid round the fractured part so as to inclose it in a kind of packing-case, of which the four sides did not meet at their edges; wooldings of rope were passed round at intervals and tightened by driving in wedges, and the boom, though somewhat clumsy, was again fit for duty. (See illustration.)

If a spar, with both ends alike, breaks at either end, a very neat and effective scarf may be made by sawing it down the centre and reversing the two parts, end for end, so that the fracture in one half may come against the unbroken part of the other, as in our sketch (p. 181). If the fracture is long, there may be no need for that unsightly appendage called a fish, and, even if it is short, a very small one will serve the purpose.

If a mast breaks, much above the deck, it may be again used, with little or no diminution of its strength, by reversing it, and stepping what used to be the masthead upon the keelson, so that the fractured part may come below the deck, while that which was the heel is shaped and fitted to become the head. It will be evident from the sketches we give that in a ship with a very deep hold, where very nearly half the mast is below the deck, this plan is more likely to be of service than in a shallow one, where the part below bears but a small proportion to that above.

* * *

Kites.

As a substitute or as an auxiliary to the common sails, or as a means of sending up a signal or effecting communication between a ship and a lee shore, a kite of sufficient power would frequently be useful.

Every voyager knows how frequently all the lower and larger sails of a vessel are becalmed, the uppermost and smallest catching only a gentle air, while at a little height above them the wind, as indicated by the fleecy clouds, may be blowing much more briskly.

In this case, when even the flying kites, as the upper sails are figuratively called, have become useless, real kites flying at a sufficient elevation would do good service; and even though the wind might not be fair, still so long as it was a little abaft the beam the vessel might be steered to her course. One thing must be kept in mind, and that is, that when it has once fallen calm below the kites cannot be raised to the breeze that is blowing above, therefore it would be well either to send them up before the breeze fails, or at least to send up in preparation a small one, to the line of which the larger could be hitched, and jerked clear when it had been carried to a sufficient altitude.

A kite of 12ft. in height spreads about 50ft. square of canvas, and will pull, in a fresh breeze, with a strength of about 200lb., if the height were doubled the strength would, of course, be fourfold; and as it would act as a lifting or buoyant instead of a depressing sail, the only risk in "carrying on" would be the parting of the line connecting it with the vessel; on this account it would be the best possible form of sail to rig in an open and over-crowded boat when leaving a wreck, for its tendency would be to lift the bows over the seas instead of depressing them. And even if a man about to risk the passage by swimming from a stranded ship to a lee shore could send up a small kite, such as he could make with a cotton shirt, a couple of sticks, and a few fathoms of fishing line, it would most likely buoy him over the crests of the breakers in which he would otherwise be overwhelmed. But the greatest objection to the general use of the kite is, that in the usual mode of flying we have no command of it except that of letting it go higher or hauling it in at the risk of breaking the line; this has been met by a very ingenious invention, and although it is patented, we think that we may do the public some service, and Mr. Pocock, the patentee, no harm, by describing it.

POCOCK'S KITE.

The common form of kite is best. The standard is made into two or three equal lengths, connected either by fishing-rod, by tent-pole, or by parasol joints; the wings have hinges at the head of the standard, and, if large, joints in each pinion. The flight band consists of two lines, the uppermost of which has an eye upon it through which the lower, called the brace line, reeves, and both come down to the hand of the conductor, and by these the deviation of the standard from the perpendicular is controlled. By hauling on the brace line the surface is opposed fairly to the full strength of the wind (Fig. 1); by slackening it the kite floats more horizontally, allowing the wind to pass gently beneath it, so that even in the strongest gale the power may be regulated at pleasure (Fig. 3). The power may be increased by backing the first with a second kite as in Fig. 2, all the lines of the second kite being made fast to their corresponding places on the first, so that both assume the same relative position in all cases. Two smaller lines from the wings, also passing through eyes on the upper line, act as braces by which to trim the kite upon a wind; and it appears from a diagram given by the inventor that a vessel braced sharp up will lie within about five and a half points of the wind, or as close as most vessels can with their usual sails, and, therefore, may turn to windward. With a kite the operation of tacking would be very easy. Even should the boat not answer her helm, the kite line taken aft would bring her head up to the wind, and, being carried round on the other quarter, and again forward to its proper place, would help her to her proper course; and in man?uvring the absence of masts would be an advantage rather than not. A carriage with the fore wheels capable of being turned by a tiller would also turn to windward, and the draught power might be increased at pleasure by backing one kite with another, the connecting lines all being fastened in their proper places, as in the illustration (p. 183), so that whatever change of position was imparted to the lowermost kite might be also assumed by all that were harnessed to it.

Signals by day or night might be sent up with great facility by hitching the halyard block upon any part of the kite line, when the flags or lanterns might be sent far above any spars or sails that could obstruct the view of them. In case of shipwreck, even a common kite extemporised with the roughest materials would very generally be useful.

SENDING LINE FROM WRECK TO LEE SHORE BY MEANS OF A KITE.

When the ship is on a lee shore, a common kite, flown from on board, could not fail to bring a line to land, and, with this communication once established, all hands could probably be saved. Their own boat might be veered ashore, or the men sling themselves with grummets and warp themselves hand over hand; or if passengers are on board, a cot or hammock, slung to notched blocks running on a hawser with a line to haul it back to the vessel, and one to bring it again towards the shore, might be employed.

But with kites rigged as we have described, there would have been a greater chance of safety, for they may be braced to fly three and a half points either way from the direction of the wind, and if they are employed to carry a grapnel or small kedge, they may be braced and veered within a limit of seven points of the compass towards a suitable spot; may be lowered gradually by the slacking of the brace line, and, if the hold is not good, again elevated by hauling it in, to drop the anchor in a more suitable spot.

In our full-page illustration the extemporised kite is not so completely rigged, but the flight line is led through a block, so that the wrecked crew could make fast to one end a stronger line; and, having hauled that through, could next bend on a sufficiently stout hawser.

The inventor states that he has travelled in a carriage, at twenty miles per hour; that a boat so drawn outsailed the speediest vessels of the usual rig; that a lady ascended to a height of a hundred yards; and that his son, with a 30ft. kite, scaled a cliff 200ft. high. Tho main and brace line of a kite of this size were ?in. in diameter, the braces (proper) were somewhat smaller. The discovery that a statue once stood on Pompey's Pillar was made by some merchant captains who ascended it by means of a line carried over by a kite.

Weather signs.

The canoe or boat voyager should at all times pay particular attention to the instructions which foretell the approach of storms; these are not at all times so unmistakable as to enable him to surely count on the kind of day or night which he has to pass through; still, the remarks of the late Admiral Fitzroy, published by the Board of Trade, are of much practical value:

"Whether clear or cloudy, a rosy sky at sunset presages fine weather; a red sky in the morning, bad weather, or much wind (perhaps rain); a grey sky in the morning, fine weather; a high dawn, wind; a low dawn, fair weather. Soft-looking or delicate clouds foretell fine weather, with moderate or light breezes; hard-edged oily-looking clouds, wind. A dark, gloomy blue sky is windy; but a light, bright blue sky indicates fine weather. Generally, the softer the clouds look, the less wind (but, perhaps, more rain) may be expected; and the harder, more 'greasy,' rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the coming wind will prove. Also, a bright yellow sky at sunset presages wind; a pale yellow, wet; and thus, by the prevalence of red, yellow, or grey tints, the coming weather may be foretold very nearly, indeed, if aided by instruments, almost exactly. Small inky-looking clouds foretell rain; light scud-clouds driving across heavy masses show wind and rain; but, if alone, may indicate wind only. High upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or stars, in a direction different from that of the lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, foretell a change of wind. When sea-birds fly out early, and far to seaward, moderate wind and fair weather may be expected; when they hang about the land, or over it, sometimes flying inland, expect a strong wind with stormy weather. There are other signs of a coming change in the weather known less generally than may be desirable, and, therefore, worth notice; such as when birds of long flight, rooks, swallows, or others, hang about home, or fly up and down or low-rain or wind may be expected. Also, when animals seek sheltered places, instead of spreading over their usual range; when pigs carry straw to their sties; when smoke from chimneys does not ascend readily (or straight upwards during calm), an unfavourable change is probable. Dew is an indication of fine weather: so is fog. Neither of these two formations occur under an overcast sky, or when there is much wind. One sees fog occasionally rolled away, as it were, by wind, but seldom or never formed while it is blowing."

* * *

Waterproofing.

The traveller will not unfrequently wish to render sailcloth, duck, calico, and other materials water-proof; few handy methods surpass that of the Chinese. They proceed as follows: to every ounce of melted white wax is added one quart of spirits of turpentine. The mixture must be stirred with a stick until quite cold, when the material to be treated is thoroughly dipped, allowed to drain out, and then finally hung by the corners in a current of air to dry. In making common tarpaulins it is well to soak the canvas thoroughly in sea-water before laying on the dressing, and as the water evaporates the tar penetrates the fabric. In Africa we used the acrid milky juice of the Euphorbium, mixed with a little boiled oil, on calico. It was very flexible, and perfectly protected a common open packing-case, with books and papers, on the deck of the vessel from the Cape to London. Boiled linseed oil, when allowed to soak into linen or cotton cloth, much increases its power of resisting the action of water.

* * *

The deep-water glass.

To those who are engaged in boat expeditions, researches along the sea-coast, or lake investigations, it is of the greatest importance to be able to see far down into the depths below; as, for example, for the recovery of sunken seals, which often go to the bottom like lead when struck dead by a shot, the examination of rocks, and the detection of lost objects. The late Mr. Wheelwright gives such a thoroughly practical account of his deep-water glass that we insert it in his own words: "I have had a little experience myself in seal-shooting off our north-west coast, and when I first began I had the mortification of seeing many a seal which I had shot stone dead go down like a plummet, and we lost him. But afterwards we used a seal-glass, a kind of machine very similar to a small hand-churn, like a bucket, about one yard high, tapering towards the top, about 9in. wide at the top and 18in. at the bottom. Of course the top was open, and in the middle of the bottom was fitted a square piece of glass (I believe common window glass). As soon as a seal sunk dead, we cast over a small buoy, kept in its place by a grapnel, as near the spot where the seal sank as possible, and then we examined the bottom after this fashion: We sunk the glass over the boat's side (just where we fancied the dead seal lay) into the water, within about two inches of the top (glass downwards), and by steadily looking down through the little glass window we could distinctly see the bottom of the sea and what lay on it. As soon as we saw the dead seal we hooked him up with a line and a drag. I don't know what is the greatest depth of water in which such a glass is available, and it is now some time since I used one; but I am sure I have often seen a dead seal lying in eight or ten fathoms; and just round the rocks where we shot the seals the water was never very deep, but still we rarely could see the bottom with the naked eye. I do not believe the glass at all has any magnifying properties, but I suppose the focus of vision is better concentrated below the surface of the waves in the comparatively still water. I was at this time living with one of the Customs' officers on the coast, who often used such a glass with great success in finding kegs that were sunk by smugglers off this coast."

* * *

Treatment of the apparently drowned.

Our remarks and directions concerning the various means which may be had recourse to for traversing rivers, lakes, and the sea would be incomplete without instructions for the restoration of the apparently drowned. None that can be drawn up are more perfect than those given by the authority of the Royal Lifeboat Institution, which were published, with some of the following remarks, in the Field newspaper some short time since:-"Hanging the body up by the heels to drain out the water which is supposed to have been swallowed, is not one of the least injurious of the popular expedients in cases of suspended animation, and it is, in itself, sufficient to keep up the engorgement of the brain, which is one of the chief dangers to be apprehended. So, also, warm baths, tobacco smoke, and other depressing influences, should be strictly prohibited; and also that horrible practice of rolling the body over and over, which is so frequently adopted by those who are ignorant of its effects. The Royal National Lifeboat Institution and Humane Society constantly circulate printed papers containing cautions against the adoption of these expedients; but, unfortunately, they are seldom to be met with when they are wanted, and, on that account, we venture to impress upon our readers the importance of making themselves intimately acquainted not only with the objectionable practices to which we have alluded, but also with the methods which scientific men are agreed upon as those most likely to restore the circulation and respiration.

"In the first place, it may be observed that for several hours after the submersion all hope of recovery should not be given up, unless it is declared by a medical man of experience that life is extinct. The signs by which this opinion may be formed are pretty clear to him, but by an ordinary spectator they are liable to be mistaken, since they are all more or less comparative in their nature. When, however, for half an hour there is not the slightest evidence of breathing, or of the action of the heart-when the eyelids are half closed, with the pupils turned upwards and dilated, the jaws clenched, and the fingers semi-contracted-there is little doubt about the result, especially if the tongue is partially protruded, and the lips and nostrils are covered with frothy mucus. The temperature of the body is often not a reliable sign, because that is kept up by artificial means; but if, in spite of these, and in addition to the existence of the above symptoms, the coldness of the surface is very manifest, even if there is no medical authority for the relaxation of all efforts at restoration, it can serve little purpose to persevere. Still it is better to err on the safe side, and in this country there is seldom a long interval of doubt.

"But supposing a body to be brought out of the water, it becomes a question, What shall be done? Shall it be taken to the nearest house, or at once be treated on the spot? The answer is, proceed at once in the open air, whether on shore or afloat, and lose not a moment in the attempt to restore breathing, and keep up the temperature of the body by the application of dry heat. The first of these is the main object, and the second must be for a short time sacrificed to it, but only for a few minutes, after which the two objects must be jointly pursued. These efforts must be continued energetically till they are either found to be successful, or declared to be useless. Should the breathing be restored, the circulation should next be encouraged by rubbing the limbs in the direction of the heart, with firm and steady pressure, and with the aid, if possible, of warm flannels or silk handkerchiefs, protected by a blanket over all. Beyond these general directions, however, it is necessary to give others more minute, and this will be best done in the words used in the printed directions of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, which are given in a succinct tabular form, and should be hung up in every public place near which accidental drowning is at all likely to occur." These directions are as follow:

TO RESTORE BREATHING.

To clear the Throat.

1. Place the patient on the floor or ground with his face downwards, and one of his arms under the forehead, in which position all fluids will escape by the mouth, and the tongue itself will fall forward, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. Assist this operation by wiping and cleansing the mouth.

2. If satisfactory breathing commences, adopt the treatment described below to promote warmth and natural breathing. If there be only slight breathing, or no breathing, or if it fail, then-

To excite Breathing

3. Turn the patient well and instantly on the side, and-

4. Excite the nostrils with snuff, harts-horn, smelling salts, or tickle the throat with a feather, &c., if they are at hand. Rub the chest and face warm, and dash cold water on it.

5. If there be no success, lose not a moment, but instantly

To imitate Breathing-

6. Replace the patient on the face, raising and supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress.

7. Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond, and then briskly on the face, back again; repeating these measures deliberately, efficiently, and perseveringly about fifteen times in the minute, or once every four seconds, occasionally varying the side:

[by placing the patient on the chest, the weight of the body forces the air out; when turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and air enters the chest.]

8. On each occasion that the body is replaced on the face, make uniform but efficient pressure with brisk movement, on the back between and below the shoulder-blades or bones on each side, removing the pressure immediately before turning the body on the side:

[the first measure increases the expiration, the second commences inspiration.]

? The result is-Respiration or Natural Breathing; and, if not too late, Life.

Cautions.

1. Be particularly careful to prevent persons crowding round the body.

2. Avoid all rough usage and turning the body on the back.

3. Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet.

TO PREVENT ANY FURTHER

DIMINUTION OF WARMTH.

N.B.-These efforts must be made very cautiously, and must not be such as to promote Warmth and circulation rapidly; for if circulation is induced before breathing has been restored, the life of the patient will be endangered. No other effect, therefore, should be sought from them, than the prevention of evaporation, and its result, the diminution of the warmth of the body.

1. Expose the face, neck, and chest, except in severe weather (such as heavy rain, frost, or snow).

2. Dry the face, neck, and chest, as soon as possible with handkerchiefs or anything at hand; and then dry the hands and feet.

3. As soon as a blanket or other covering can be obtained, strip the body; but if no covering can be immediately procured, take dry clothing from the bystanders, dry and re-clothe the body, taking care not to interfere with the efforts to restore breathing.

N.B. The directions are printed in parallel columns to avoid confusion, and to insure that the efforts to obtain both objects shall be carried on at the same time.

* * *

It would be of great advantage to every traveller if before starting on an expedition he were to spend a few hours in learning from a blacksmith how to weld together two pieces of iron, and from a tinman how to solder tin or copper. In the absence of this experience, a man who is determined to help himself need not despair of success if he will bear in mind that the chief essentials in both cases are proper heat, strict cleanliness, and sufficient quickness of manipulation without hurry.

If the traveller possesses a portable forge, it is most likely he will have learned how to use it before starting; if not, he may in many countries, South Africa especially, find almost in every tribe some native who could make one; or if not, he might adopt some of the expedients described under that head. His first care should be to see that his fire burns clearly and with sufficient intensity, and this he may aid by occasionally dashing in a little water, which, by the decomposition of the gases, will increase the heat under the direct blast, while the surplus, falling on the surrounding coal, will prevent the fire spreading farther than is requisite. The broken ends of the iron to be rejoined should then be placed in the fire, one of them in the centre of the heat, and the other near enough to acquire a preparatory warmth; the first, heated to a bright orange red, should be taken out and thickened by stamping the broken point upon the anvil till it is considerably shorter than before; if the heat is sufficient, the scarf, or smooth diagonal surface which is to form one part of the welded joint, may be worked upon it; if not, it must be returned to the fire while the other part is taken out and driven up in the same manner. In using the hammer, some care is needful to proportion the force of the blow to the size and comparative heat of the metal you are working, and also to turn the iron under the hammer so that each stroke shall help to consolidate the mass instead of splitting it into fibres. When the surfaces of the scarf are worked smooth, fair, and perfectly free from scales or dirt of any kind, place them side by side in the fire and bring them to an intense white heat, so that when drawn forth they may almost spontaneously give off small white sparks. We would add a caution against burning the iron, or partially fusing it, by too much heat, but we do not think a traveller with an extempore forge is in much danger of doing this. The anvil should now be perfectly clean; the "smith," with his hammer ready in his right hand, should grasp with his left one of the pieces while his attendant draws out the other and lays it with the scarfed side uppermost on the anvil; prompt action without hurry is now the one thing needful: the smith withdraws his piece, lays it with its scarf turned downwards on that of the assistant's, and with one decisive stroke of the hand-hammer unites them; a few more smart and rapid strokes while the iron is slightly turned to and fro to receive them properly, complete the union; and when the first heat is lost the iron is again put into the fire, and the joint which, owing to the thickening and shortening previously described, should present a clumsy appearance, may be trimmed and hammered down to its proper dimensions, the iron, if this is neatly done, having lost but little of its original length; and it is now for the operator to judge whether he will restore this by beating the metal a little thinner or sacrifice a little of it for the sake of retaining the original thickness. Among the Kafirs a rock is most frequently used for an anvil, and a smaller stone for a hammer. The West Africans use a conical block of iron, about the size and shape of the link extinguishers, some of which may yet be seen before old houses in London. The work has, in consequence, a slightly indented appearance, which distinguishes it from the smooth-faced hammer-work of England; but their weapons are of excellent metal, and so flexible, that they will almost tie in a knot rather than break. The Abyssinians also use weapons of this temper; for they say if a steel sword breaks, who can mend it, but if it bends we can sit on it and straighten it.

Scrap and hoop iron.

We have often made very good knives for skinning or cutting up animals from the handles of broken gridirons, frying-pans, stout hoop, or other bits of iron. Broken sheep-shears are also excellent substitutes. The hoop iron used to bind the bundles of compressed hay issued to troop horses can be made use of for an immense number of useful purposes. The walls of many of the stables we erected in the Crimea were composed entirely of this material, closely interwoven, like basketwork. Excellent gabions can be made from it, as can the framework of hut roofs. A piece a couple of yards long, doubled forward and back in zigzag form, makes an excellent gridiron. Short pieces, straightened out by hammering, form useful make-shift knife blades for the use of native servants. Tent poles are greatly strengthened by having a spiral strapping of this iron nailed to them. Saws for cutting or rather fretting blocks of stone can be made by stretching a strip of this material edgewise in a wooden frame, aided by water, sharp sand, and a suitable balance weight, such as marble masons use. Excellent eel traps are made by arranging long strips of hoop for a body, and then securing them by small nails, as rivets, to hoops made from the same material. Eel traps will be fully described under the head of "Fishing." We once made a complete set of bars for the bottom and front of a camp stove entirely of forage hoop iron, made a scraper for the door, a set of hooks for a gun rack, and a set of cross hooks to hang meat on. Never heedlessly throw away forage iron.

Trimming and filing up are matters which may be left very much to the taste and opportunities of the traveller, but it should be remembered that, c?teris paribus, a neatly finished piece of work, besides being more satisfactory to the eye, is in itself stronger, as the inequalities, flakes, flaws, or roughnesses of the surface, which, under any strain, might form the commencement of a fracture, are removed; and besides this, especially in wet climates, a well smoothed piece of work is less liable to rust in patches than one of unequal surface. If you intend to file-finish your work, remember to let it cool slowly, and do not harden it by immersion in water.

The use of cold or of joiners' chisels.

In some cases incisions may be required, too sharp or clean to be cut with a file, and, if proper care be taken, a fine, sharp, joiner's chisel may be used without more injury than may be set right by fresh grinding it; it is advisable, however, first to render the angle at which the edge is set a little more obtuse, so as to lessen the danger of flawing it, taking care at the same time to keep it as keen as possible.

Tires and wheels.

In all expeditions in which wheeled vehicles are used, nothing causes more trouble than the loosening of the tires, owing to the shrinking of the woodwork, and possibly some slight expansion of the metal, from the heavy pressure on the rough roads, as well as from the intense heat of a tropical climate. If sufficient skill be available, the proper course is to cut and shorten the tire, for all other make-shifts have the disadvantage either of being insecure, or positively injurious to the fabric of the wheel. Supposing the shortening to be determined on, the tire must be taken off, and if, as is frequently the case, it be fastened with rivets through the felloes, the clinch on the inner ends of the bolts must be first cut or filed away, the "washers" or iron rings taken off, and the rivets themselves driven back with a long punch or drift pin; the "band" or tire will then either fall off or require but a few blows to detach it. The streaks used to protect the wheels of field artillery guns and waggons are removed and replaced separately.

It is impossible to measure the relative circumference of the felloes and the inner side of the band without an instrument similar to the perambulator; i. e. a wheel or disc of wood or metal, mounted on a handle. A chalk mark is made on the felloe and a corresponding one on the edge of the disc; the two are set together, and the disc-say 1ft. 6in. in circumference-will then revolve perhaps ten and a half times in going round the hinder wheel of a Cape waggon of about 5ft. diameter. As soon as the disc has again reached the starting point another chalk mark is to be made upon it, and the distance between the two marks on the disc, say 9in., is to be added to the number of revolutions counted; it is then to be applied to the inner side of the band, the ten revolutions counted off, the additional 9in. to be run, and the distance between the starting point and the finish of its course is the amount by which the band is too long. Some judgment is required to decide whether more or less than this piece shall be taken out. If the wheel looks very firm and close in its joints, perhaps a little less should be cut, as the overlapping of the weld will take up a trifle-especially if it be not very skilfully and neatly done; if the wheel is loose and the spokes not firmly shouldered up to the nave, a little more may be taken away; and in this case it is proper to estimate whether the felloes will close up sufficiently to force the spokes home upon the nave; if not, the ends of four or more felloes opposite each other should be cut a trifle shorter with a fine tenon saw, great care being taken not to cut the dowels by which the ends of the felloes are kept true to each other. A smooth, hard place must now be sought out, on which the wheel can be laid flat, the front downwards, a hole being dug, if necessary, for the reception of the nave; flat stones, plates of iron, or slabs of hard wood, laid evenly under the circumference, would be of advantage when the shortened band is to be driven on. The next essentials are plenty of water and abundance of heating power. The ends of the band must now be heated, and the smith will bevel off each of them, one from the inside and the other from the out, so as to form the scarf; an attendant or two holding the band, as he directs, upon the anvil. The tire should now be reversed, and the curvature increased by resting it on two points of support and striking heavily between them on its inner surface till the scarfed ends close upon and begin to overlap each other. It is again placed in the fire with the ends equally exposed to the intense heat, and at the proper moment is lifted out by two attendants and promptly, but carefully, placed upon the anvil; a few smart decisive blows are given, and the joint is made. The hammer man now comes to the assistance of the smith and consolidates it by striking alternate blows with the "sledge," under his direction. The circumference is again tried with the revolving disc, and if it be too short, as it ought rather to be, it is again heated and hammered out, the weld, if this be rightly done, gaining solidity in the process. The band is then laid upon the ground and a fire of wood, dry cow dung, or other material made, so as to heat it to redness through its whole circumference. It is then lifted by tongs or other means (if hooks are used they must be applied from the outside), and placed upon the wheel, and, as quickly as possible, hammered down nearly into its true position. The workmen will soon find what "smoke to the eyes" is like, but they must disregard this, and, before the wood is too much burned away, quantities of cold water must be dashed on, the hammer men all the while beating down the shrinking band to a level with the felloes; before it is quite cold the wheel should be caught up and brought to the anvil, or a smooth rock, where the tire is faced up true to the felloe front by heavy blows, and finally cooled off and tightened by another deluge of cold water.

Everything depends upon prompt action; and the tiring of a set of waggon wheels at some out station is really an exciting event, at which all hands are required to work with a will.

Repair of perch-bolts.

Not unfrequently the "schammel-bolt" or perch-bolt will give way in the grip, and if this flaw be detected in time, and the bolt be long enough, the evil day may be staved off by removing it, boring a hole through the "buik" plank or floor of the waggon, right above, and dropping the bolt down through it so that its head remains 3in. or 4in. higher than before, and the nip is brought upon a fresh place, as shown by the dotted line above H (p. 216).

Extempore anvils and vices.

For small work, the "reim schoen," or drag, turned up upon a block of wood, will form a very decent anvil; and the next essential is a vice, which ought to be as large and powerful as can be carried. A weak inefficient vice is worse than useless. The means of attaching it ought also to be good, for if it is not firmly fixed no work can be properly finished in it. No part of the waggon ought to be used as a holdfast for the vice, unless indeed it were properly fitted with iron guards for that purpose before starting, for the claws and screw-bolts would speedily tear and split the wood, and only damage the vehicle to no purpose. It would generally be better to cut down a convenient tree, leaving a stump about 3?ft. high, and in this to cut a niche, partly to let the vice in: it might then be secured by hoops of iron, if available, such as the nave bands, or anything similar, tightened with wedges, and lashed in its place by thongs of raw hide, which, when they dry, acquire almost the rigidity of iron.

If the vice cannot be fixed firmly, it is better to cut with the saw a deep groove down into the solid stump, and, having inserted the iron you wish to file, to tighten it with wedges, screws, lashings, or such other appliances as you may have at hand (p. 166).

The tapping of screws on bolts or nuts, especially if of any size, requires that the work be firmly held; but we should rather advise that duplicate bolts and nuts of the principal sizes used in waggon work-?in., ?in., ?in., and 1in.-be carried, as a set of taps and dies could not be had even in Cape Town for much less than ￡5, and an unskilled hand would be more likely to break the instruments than use them to advantage. For the smaller sizes, suitable for gun-locks, &c., a plate and set of taps might advantageously be carried.

Cutting bolts and gun-barrels.

Sometimes a bolt, rod of iron, or a gun-barrel, has to be cut off to a given length, and the most convenient way of doing this is to file a row of small teeth upon the back of a handsaw, and with it to saw off the superfluous iron: the first illustration shows the manner of cutting the teeth, and their exact size and shape. Always put in a bit of copper, lead, or leather to protect the gun-barrels from the grip of the vice. It may, perhaps, be well to remark here, that nearly all Russian saws are made to cut backwards, and all the gun breech-screws made in that country are cut the reverse way to ours.

For repairs of guns, it is well to have sufficient wire of different thicknesses; but when a hardened pivot is required, a broken gimlet or a bradawl will often supply the material; and we have before now earned a goat or sheep for dinner by supplying in this manner some deficiency in the arms brought to the white man to be repaired. It is convenient to buy a musket-lock or two before starting, and to save all sorts of screws, tumblers, springs, &c., out of old locks.

We were once asked, far away in Namaqualand, to perform no less a service for a friend than to put a new hammer on his gun. Modest disclaimers of ability were not received, and there was nothing left but to do our best. We found a bit of flat iron, which, fortunately, had a hole in it: this we first squared up with a small "three-square" file, and then fitting it to the tumbler, and making sure that the flat surface of the hammer should strike upon the nipple, laboriously cut and filed away the intermediate parts, and before morning the hammer was fixed. Mr. Rae, the engineer of the Zambesi expedition, proceeded more scientifically; he employed a native to weld up a quantity of iron hooping into a plate quite thick and large enough to make the hammer, then, drawing the outline, he bored small holes close together all round it, broke off the superfluous iron, and finished with the file.

On one occasion we were unfortunate enough to break the little S-shaped bridle which connects the claw of the mainspring with the arm of the tumbler. Most of our readers will remember that this portion of a gun-lock is of a most peculiar form, being not only S-shaped, but flat-cheeked and T-ended. Notwithstanding the apparently complicated nature of the undertaking, a new one had to be made; so we proceeded as follows:-One of our small mining picks chanced to have an iron wedge (which had originally been cut from an old patten iron) in the handle. This we softened in the fire, worked into form on the head of an upturned hammer with one of smaller size, and then roughly finished it up with a handsaw file. The screw hole had then to be made, and, as we had no drill, we took the scissors from our fishing-book, ground down the point on our bit of Turkey hone, tempered it in the candle, and then, by dint of hard labour and persistent boring, made a hole through the end of the bridle. We then gave our work a few finishing touches, tied it up in a bit of old leather, heated it in the fire, plunged it in water to case-harden, and then secured it in the lock, where it performed its work well until we parted with the gun so repaired.

Sighting guns.

Most of the hunters in South Africa find that ivory, from its agreeable creamy white, is better adapted for the "korel," or front sight of a gun, than the polished metal used for that purpose by the maker. Sometimes the sight is accidentally lost, and has to be replaced; but more frequently the dazzling bit of metal is purposely knocked off.

A broad flat groove, say ?in. broad, or as wide as a handsaw file, and 1?16in. deep, is cut across the midrib of the gun (Fig. 1), and the edges of this are under cut, either with a sharp-edged file, or, if the operator is expert in the use of tools, with a chisel and mallet. A piece of ivory (Fig. 3), cut so that the grain runs with the length of the barrel, and with an elevated ridge left in the centre, is then fitted tightly in, adjusted as nearly as possible, and the metal clinched down upon it; then the central ridge is filed on either side until, by occasionally firing at a mark, the gun is found to shoot without lateral deviation. It should, in the beginning, be considerably too high, and should then be filed down so as to carry the bullet point blank to its mark at a hundred yards.

If the back sight is lost, cut a notch across the midrib as before, and fashion a piece of iron (Fig. 2) to the same shape as you did your ivory, only let the elevated ridge in this case be across the barrel. File a notch in the centre, and leave the iron a little wider than the rib, so that it may admit of being driven a little to either side, and the superfluous metal filed off when the adjustment is nearly perfected. Mark it, and take it out to do this; then put it in again, clinch it, and test it by firing at a mark.

Figs. 4 and 5 represent the position of the two sights. If the gun shoots to the right, shift the back sight (Fig. 6) to the left and the front sight (Fig. 7) to the right; if to the left, shift the back sight (Fig. 8) to the right, and the front one (Fig. 9) to the left. If the gun shoots too low, file down the front sight; if too high, file down the notch of the back sight.

In one of our own rifles the front sight was, as usual in military patterns, based on the block of iron which forms the check for the bayonet (Fig. 11). We did not remove this, but cut behind it a very shallow groove an inch broad, and in this fixed and soldered a piece of iron with a longitudinal groove, to carry a knife-edged sight of ivory, as seen in Fig. 10.

For night shooting, we used the only sixpence to be found amongst our party; bending and polishing it and clinching it on to a saddle of zinc painted black. Holes were punched in this for leather thongs, and in front was a notch cut to fit the actual sight, and so insure the central position of the silver one when in use (Fig. 13). By day the saddle was turned beneath the barrel (Fig. 12), and the little flat thongs of antelope hide were not at all in the way. With guns not of military pattern the sight could not so conveniently be turned under, but would have to be removed by day; but we should think a broad silver sight might be fixed on a steel spring on the rib behind the sight, with a broad ring to slip over and keep it down by day, as in Fig. 15, or to draw back and let it rise into view by night as in Fig. 14 (p. 201). For the same purpose our late friend, C. J. Andersson, used to wrap a bit of white paper round the muzzle of his gun, pinching it up in the centre, or laying a cord under it to give it a little elevation (Fig. 16).

As a protection, and also for the contrast of the colours, the Dutch, and many of the English colonists, stitch very tightly over all a bit of skin from the inside of the elephant's ear (Fig. 17). This is very fine, exceedingly strong, and, when rubbed with a little grease, intensely black; it is then very carefully cut, to allow the front sight to appear through, and left to dry. Another advantage of this plan is, that it corrects the errors often caused by the mirage or refraction of the sun's rays from the polished barrel, which, especially in the tropics, causes the object aimed at to become indistinct, to assume the appearance of motion, and to be seen sometimes considerably above its true position, thereby causing the marksman to miss by shooting over it.

Sheath knives or bayonets.

No wise traveller ever encumbers himself with a long sword or bayonet of ordinary pattern; but every one carries a sheath knife, of from 6in. to 12in. in the blade; and the handle of this ought to be made so that it may fix as a bayonet on his gun. We have seen natives considerably astonished by this sudden conversion of our gun into a spear to kill a wounded animal.

If the knife handle were simply made round, so as to stick into the barrel, like the bayonet of old times, it would be better than nothing; but if the side-springs were generally adopted, it might be well to arm our troops, intended for service in wild countries, with a good serviceable sheath knife, of 8in. or 10in. in the blade, to be used for general purposes, and fixed as a bayonet when wanted, rather than with the orthodox triangular needle, that is only of use in opportunities that occur but rarely. We remember a party of a certain line regiment coming upon a number of Hottentots, when their officer ordered them to fix bayonets, forgetting for the moment that as usual they had been left at home-just as were the swords and steel scabbards of the Cape Corps-lest their rattling should give warning to the crafty foe. It is a common custom in India, when real work has to be done, to throw aside the steel scabbards and replace them with wooden ones, which have the double advantage of being noiseless and a preservative to the edge of the sword. We have heard a man of the Rifle Brigade say, he should not fear even though lost in the bush. "Shoot the first Kafir that attacks you," said he, "and arm yourself with his assegai, and no other will come near you."

THE ASSEGAI GUN REST.

Our allies, the Fingoes, in the war of 1850–53, generally carried one or more assegais, using the shaft as a ramrod, or holding two of them crosswise in the left hand as a rest for the musket. The Kafirs, when hard pressed, retain the largest assegai, and, breaking off the shaft, use it as a sword or dagger. The contest is often prolonged by picking up the assegais thrown by the other party, and sending them back again. To prevent this, sometimes a tribe, bent on a sharp decisive conflict, will cut the shaft half through, so that it may break when it strikes, and become useless to the enemy.

RAMROD GUN REST.

The Dutch Boer sits down, rests his elbows on his knees, and extending his left arm, with the ramrod grasped firmly and planted on the ground, obtains an almost immovable rest for his heavy roer. Many of them shoot from the left shoulder, and some few can shoot from either shoulder equally well-an immense advantage if a man on horseback is surrounded by enemies.

Watch-key, to make.

In an out-of-the way corner of Central India we were so unfortunate as to lose our watch-key-the last of three. This we replaced as follows: We first routed out a piece of soft steel about the size of a small black-lead pencil. After filing off one end perfectly flush, we placed it in the fire, whilst we prepared the square end of a saddler's awl by grinding it to the exact size of the key-square of the fusee of the watch. When the steel was heated to a cherry red, we fixed it upright in the vice, and then supporting the bit of awl with a pair of pliers we, with a light hammer, drove it a fair distance into the steel bar. When it cooled, it was reheated, and the bit of awl driven deeper, until a square hole of sufficient depth was formed. The bar was then filed down to the size of the key-hole of the watch. The requisite length was then cut off; the end flattened out for a thumb-piece; and a hole drilled in it to pass a thin strip of tendon through. A few finishing touches were given with a fine file; the work was heated to a blue heat on a bit of red-hot iron, and was then dropped into a cup of water. So we made our watch-key, which did its work well through about 4000 miles of travelling, and was as good as new when we returned to England with it hanging at our whip-cord watch-guard.

Tools, to temper.

In all cases in which heat is required for iron work care should be taken that the fire is perfectly clear, especially if it has been previously used for melting lead, when any dross or other extraneous matter should be scrupulously cleared out. Sulphur in any form is most destructive. It would be well that the operator should learn before starting how to work up and fresh temper a cold chisel, or punch, or even to make one if needful out of a broken file or rasp; of course, the punch is round, square, or octagonal, according to circumstances, and generally flat at the end to drive back the nail or bolt that is to be withdrawn. Sometimes a tapered point on a triangular instrument, such as a handsaw file, with the edges sharpened, is useful for driving into a broken nipple, and by turning it against the sun to extract it when sufficient hold has not been left for the usual nipple key. The cold chisel is first forged to a chisel edge, more or less finely tapering according to the strength required, the two sides forming an angle of about 15° to 20° with each other; the cantle is then filed or ground till its sides form an angle of from 45° to 90°; it is then heated to a cherry red, and dipped in water cautiously at first, being frequently taken out and watched during the process till it assumes a pale straw colour, a deeper tint or even a deep blue or purple, according to the degree of hardness required, and is finally ground sharp upon a stone with plenty of cold water. Small tools may be tempered by laying them on a piece of red-hot iron, such as a bit of waggon-wheel tire; the changing colours should be watched, and when the desired tint appears the tool may be plunged into water. Should it be too hard the temper may be reduced by dry grinding; when a temper not quite so hard and less liable to fly is required, it may be given by cooling the steel in grease or oil. The tools carried for this purpose must vary according to the means of conveyance. On the North Australian Expedition we had a portable forge, which remained at the main camp, but on our inland journeys with packed horses we took as many horse-shoes as were thought requisite, a small hand hammer, a pair of tongs, a few files, rasps and punches, and a supply of nails.

Case-hardening.

It not unfrequently happens that some object, such as a fish-hook, key, portion of a gun-lock, or gun furniture, will require being so treated as to harden the surface whilst toughness of texture is retained. This process is known as case-hardening, which is, as its name implies, one by which a hard case or crust is formed over the surfaces of the articles operated on. There are numerous instruments and contrivances in constant use in the construction of which the toughness of iron combined with the hardness of steel, communicated by the process about to be described, is taken advantage of. Gun furniture, fish-hooks, and handcuffs are examples, the latter most remarkedly so, as, were they composed of ordinary iron, nothing would be more easy than to file or saw them through; if of steel, a blow with a stone, or any other heavy substance, would break them as though made of earthenware. When case-hardened neither of these devices is available. Too hard to cut, too tough to break, the metal is all that can be desired. Having fashioned, filed up, and finished the article or articles in hand, procure a fair quantity of leather cuttings, or horsehoof parings. These should be roasted crisp, and pounded up until a sufficient quantity of coarse powder is obtained to bury the "work" when laid in a little iron box, which can be conveniently made by doubling up the edges and ends of a bit of sheet iron. In the absence of iron, clay may be used to form the box. This, when filled and gently pressed down, must be placed, when dry, in a clear bright fire, and heated up to a blood red heat, at which temperature it should be allowed to remain for a short time, taking care not to increase it. The box and its contents may then be withdrawn with the tongs, and thrown into a pail of cold water. The work may, when cold, be washed and brushed clean, made thoroughly dry, oiled, and put aside for use. Ferrocyanide of potassium is also extensively used for case-hardening, being either sprinkled over the work when hot, or mixed with some convenient substance, such as dried cow dung, and placed in the box; but, unless in the hands of those accustomed to use it, the surfaces of the work at times become "pitted" from the contact of stray particles of the salt.

To platinise iron, &c.

Professor Church gives the following directions for covering the surfaces of metallic objects with a film of platinum: "Dissolve in 1oz. of distilled water 60grs. of bichloride of platinum and 60grs. of pure honey. Add to the above solution ?oz. of spirits of wine, and 1/4oz. of ether. The mixed liquids, if not quite clear, must be filtered through a piece of white blotting-paper. The objects to be platinised, which may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or brass, are to be thoroughly cleaned by washing them in soda, then in water. When they have been dried they require heating over a lamp to a heat below redness. For this purpose they may be suspended, by means of a fine wire, over a spirit or an oil lamp, in such a way as not to touch the flame. Suddenly, before they have had time to cool, the objects are to be completely plunged beneath the surface of the platinising liquid. One immersion for a single minute generally suffices, but the process may be repeated if necessary, care being taken to wash and dry the pieces operated upon before re-heating them. The composition of the solution may vary considerably, and yet good results be obtained. Sometimes the addition of more honey improves it; sometimes the proportion of bichloride of platinum may be increased or diminished with advantage. Indeed, it will be found that the appearance of the platinum film deposited upon the objects may be altered by changing the proportion of the bichloride present. The solution may be used several times; gradually, however, it loses all its platinum, the place of this element being taken by the iron or copper dissolved off the immersed objects."

If the film of platinum deposited by this method is found to be permanently adherent, the plan promises to be very valuable. It would be a great boon to travellers in warm, damp countries to be able to protect iron and steel articles by so simple a process. In the same article Professor Church describes a new and very simple plan of inlaying iron with silver, and also for enamelling metals with different colours. Both these processes really come within the scope of amateurs, and we can strongly recommend the entire paper to those interested in the chemical arts.

We may now appropriately mention a few examples where this platinising process seems to furnish desirable results. Articles made of iron or steel-watch-chains, seals, sword-handles, keys, and similar useful or ornamental objects-are greatly improved in appearance, and, moreover, preserved from all chance of rusting, by this treatment. The colour of the platinum film is of a neutral greyish black, and it often shows at the same time a faint iridescence. Iron or steel which has been inlaid with gold or silver, forming what is known as damascene work, is greatly improved by platinising. Neither the gold nor the silver are in the least degree affected, and they will be found to afford a better contrast with the colour of the platinised than with that of the original iron.

To preserve iron from rusting.

Iron which has become deeply rusted cannot be platinised by our process. In order, however, to preserve from further destruction objects of steel or iron having an arch?ological or artistic interest, a very excellent plan may be used as a substitute. The purest white paraffine is to be melted in a clean pan, and maintained at about the temperature of boiling water. The rusted and corroded specimens are to be immersed in this paraffine bath till they cease to froth from escape of moisture. They are then withdrawn, wrapped in blotting-paper, and kept in a warm place till the excess of paraffine has been absorbed. The objects thus treated, while preserved from further decay, do not acquire that disagreeable greasy aspect which the varnish ordinarily used imparts. We have been obliged to tar our saw blades, which was very inconvenient in working, but this was better than having them spoiled by rust.

Smith's tools.

If the traveller has a waggon, as in South Africa, he may either carry a portable forge or trust to finding natives capable of building one and supplying bellows of their own manufacture. If he thinks the weight of a small anvil too great, he should carry a heavy sledge hammer, which will serve as an anvil for ordinary purposes; two hand hammers of different weights; half-a-dozen pair of tongs, of such form and size as will enable him conveniently to hold the different sizes of work he may find necessary to do; at least a dozen files or more-square, flat, half-round, or rat-tail; and of these the temper should never be destroyed by working with them on iron that has not yet become cool, though occasionally time may be saved by using a worn-out file to work on iron while it is yet hot and comparatively soft; cold chisels of different sizes, from small ones of 1/4in. or ?in. wide, to be tapped with a small hand hammer, to others of 1?in., to be held by pieces of rod iron coiled round them, or still better by rods of osier, and to be struck with the sledge hammer; if there is an anvil, of course a chisel to fix upright in the hole provided will be taken with it; punches of various sizes, and a stock and set of drills for boring holes up to ?in. in diameter, with rymers, or tapering four-edged tools for gradually enlarging them, and countersinks for letting in the heads of screws, &c., to the surface level. For small work, such as gun-locks, &c., an Archimedean drill and set of bits are very convenient, a hand-vice and set of gunsmith's small files-triangular, square, flat, half-round, round, and knife-edged-should accompany them.

Muskets, to repair.

A traveller will frequently have occasion either for his own servants or for the natives of the country to put "fresh fire" into the pan cover of a musket; for this purpose nothing is better than the blade of an old saw, the thinner the better; a piece is broken off, softened and filed down to the exact size; it is then bent so as to fit the face of the pan-cover, and is bound on to it by several turns of iron wire, not drawn so tightly but that bits of copper wire may be thrust beneath them all round the edges that are to be joined; borax, dissolved in water, is now laid on with an old brush, and, if necessary, small lumps are also added, and the whole is placed in the fire and heated till the copper melts and brazes the two parts firmly together; let it cool slowly, finish it carefully with the file, heat it to a dull red, and temper by cooling it in water. Half-civilised Hottentots frequently do this.

Fish-hooks, to make.

The snoek-hook used in Table Bay is a bit of brass wire as thick as a quill and 7in. long; the point is filed sharp, and the barb is merely such a triangular notch as might be made with a handsaw file. It is not bent in a true sweeping curve, like our fish-hooks, but turned sharply up at about 2in. from the point, so that when the lip is pierced, it slips at once into the sharp bend of the hook, and the struggles of the fish are less likely to break it than they would be if it afforded the leverage that the usual form of fish-hook gives. (See Fig. 20, p. 211.) Fish-hooks can be made by taking a wire or rod of the required size and softening it by heating it to a bright red and letting it cool very slowly in sawdust or leaving it till the fire dies out; let the soft end abut against something solid, and, with a sharp chisel and mallet, make a deep cut at such an angle as to form the barb; file up the point, heat it again, and bend it round a stick of the proper size so that the curve may be true. We have, before now, broken up a gridiron at the galley fire, and with a hook thus formed from one of the bars caught a young shark, whose flesh formed a very desirable addition to our fare. On another occasion, while exploring a branch of the Victoria River, in North Australia, we halted, as usual, at noon, with scanty rations, which Mr. Gregory improved by taking from his hat a stout sewing needle, softening it in the fire, and bending it into a fish-hook, baited with grasshoppers; a few strands of thread made a sufficiently strong line, a small sapling formed a rod, and, in a few minutes, he had caught three fish, resembling mullet, nearly 18in. long. The needle had done good service, but was too precious to be thrown away, so Mr. Gregory carefully restored it to its pristine straightness, tempered it, and again stuck it in his hat, to be used, when required, for its legitimate purpose.

Brass, and its treatment.

It is rather curious that with brass the softening process is the very reverse of that we use with iron. Heat a bit of brass and plunge it into cold water, and, with a sharp knife or chisel, you may carve it almost like pewter; heat it again when finished, let it cool slowly, and it becomes as hard as before.

A traveller in Africa should be well provided with brass, the best form being that of stout wire as thick as stair carpet rods; this will serve for many useful purposes: hooks, rings, ramrods for guns, or almost anything can be made of it. While, in lengths sufficient to make armlets, it is always a convenient medium of barter, or payment for the services of the natives, who, though they will give nothing for hollow lacquered curtain rings, will always appreciate solid metal, that may be cut, worn away, or broken, and remains the same throughout.

Tinning Copper.

To tin copper: first clean the surface carefully by rubbing it with sandpaper or stone, or washing it with diluted nitric acid or aquafortis; heat it till it is rather too warm to handle, by placing a hot iron or pan of fire under the part to be tinned; rub on, with a feather, a little hydrochloric acid (commonly called spirits of salt) with zinc dissolved in it; then, with a soldering bolt previously rubbed on sal-ammoniac, touch the bit of tin you hold upon the copper, and, as you melt it, spread it evenly with a bit of rag over the surface you wish to tin; this ought to be done with the insides of all copper vessels that are to be used for containing liquids or for cooking, and also for the edges of sheets that are afterwards to be soldered together. Even if the edges were to be riveted, it would still be advisable to tin them, as they might then also be soldered by slightly heating them and running a little tin into the joint, by means of the heated bolt rubbed on sal-ammoniac, as before.

Small iron nails, tacks, fish-hooks, &c., are protected from the effects of rust by tinning. The process is carried out as follows:-First cleanse the objects to be operated on in diluted sulphuric acid, then place them with broken fragments of tin and sal-ammoniac in an earthenware bottle over a strong charcoal fire. When the coating of tin is found to be complete, they are first washed in clean water, and then dried in hot bran or sawdust.

Sheet metal, to join.

A very strong joint may be made by turning up, say ?in., more or less, of the edge of one sheet (Fig. 1), then laying in it the edge of the other (Fig. 2), and turning up the edges of both (Fig. 3); then, keeping the joint pressed down, lift up the second sheet as you would open a book, and press it out flat and open (Fig. 4). You cannot make this joint in the two edges of the same sheet, turned round upon each other (Fig. 5), unless you first nearly flatten the two parts (Fig. 6), when they may be doubled upon each other, and the sheet restored to its cylindrical form by the insertion of any pointed cylinder, such as, for instance, the horn of the anvil or a block of wood rounded and tapered at the end (Fig. 7). Suppose it is required to make a pannikin, this joint, whether previously tinned so that it may be soldered or not, is the only proper one, but the corners should previously have been cut away, so that only a single or, at most, a slightly overlapping double thickness may be left at top and bottom (Fig. 8). The bottom edge is now turned outwards by gently tapping it on the block or anvil edge with a hammer till it resembles a narrow flange (Fig. 9). A circular piece is now cut for the bottom so much larger as to allow a rim to be turned up all round (Fig. 10), and to admit the flange within it (Fig. 11); then setting it flat upon the anvil, and forcing into it a block of wood that has been cut perfectly to fit it, clinch down the rim of the bottom upon the flange (Fig. 12), and turn them both up against the side together (Fig. 13). The top edge may now be rolled over in the same manner, and it will give additional strength if the rim is strengthened by the insertion of a piece of wire. If the foregoing joints have been carefully made you will have a water-tight and, what is more, a fireproof pannikin with or without the aid of solder, and a handle can be riveted on or not just as suits your convenience. One great advantage of the folded joint is, that if it is not too tightly hammered down, the parts will slide freely on each other, and advantage may be taken of this for making an opening in one side of a cannister to be closed by a sliding lid; or, if you are making a pannikin or other vessel, and your metal is not large enough to make the whole circumference in one piece, cut a small strip (Fig. 14) of the breadth you wish the joint, say 3?16in. or ?in., and fold the edge of the metal twice over it (Fig. 15), then draw it out; do the same with the other edge, and also with the edges of the piece you intend to insert (Fig. 16), and you may then, with a little care, slip the parts together, and clinch down the joints as closely as you wish (Fig. 17). If the corners have previously been snipped off, or smoothed with a file, it will considerably increase the facility of doing this.

Utilisation of meat tin cases.

During the North Australian Expedition, when Mr. Gregory was preparing for the journey from the Victoria River to the Albert, in the Gulf of Carpentaria, he collected all the emptied preserved meat tins, and burning off the old paint by placing them above the forge fire, smoothed down the tin upon the surface with a piece of greasy rag, trimmed up the ragged edges, and, in most cases, obtained sheets of tinned iron nearly equal to new; from these he made pannikins of graduated sizes, in fact a nest of them, one fitting into the other from the largest to the least, thus securing comfort and convenience to his party, and utilising material which many persons would have thrown away as useless.

In opening a packing case lined with tin, care should be taken to cut the edges as clean as possible, for not only are ragged points liable to tear the hands very disagreeably, but if you wish to make use of the tin in any other manner, it is of great importance that it should be kept quite clean, flat, and free from unsightly wrinkles; a smooth sheet of tin may be cut, turned, or bent almost at will, but if it has previously been wrinkled, it is absolutely impossible to restore it to flatness, and to make a true joint in it is as much out of the question as to write freely on note paper fall of unsightly folds or creases. For cutting tin or other sheet metal, a pair of small tin snips, say 8in. or 9in. in total length, will be found exceedingly useful: stout copper or sheet-iron may be cut with them.

Dishes and plates, to make.

To make plates or dishes of sheet iron or other metal, cut out a disc or oval, of the size you wish, and then draw a line parallel to the edge all round it (Fig. 18); then draw lines radiating from the centre, like points on a compass card, as many as you please, say twelve, which will divide each quarter into three parts, answering to the hours on a clock face.

Make a small hollow across the end of a block of wood, the stem of the nearest small tree cut off at a convenient length for instance, lay the edge of your plate on it with one of the radiating lines corresponding with the hollow; strike it with the edge of your hammer till you have slightly indented it, do the same on the opposite side, and then with the other two quarters; repeat this all round, and you will have a very neat and useful plate, with scolloped edges like the patty pans usually sold by tinmen (Fig. 19).

Rivets.

A few rivets of various sizes, of iron, tin, and copper, should be taken; but, if the work is to be exposed to the action of the water, care should be taken not to fasten iron sheets with copper rivets, as the action of the metals on each other will be most destructive.

Tin rivets may be used to fasten any other metal where great strength is not required, and they are very advantageous for many purposes, as handles of tin or copper pannikins. By these we mean rivets of tin, not of iron tinned over, which also are useful, but not so easily worked.

Make-shift forge and bellows.

To extemporise a forge and bellows, the natives of Africa and India, who invariably squat down to their work, simply make their fire on the ground, which is previously smoothed and clayed over; behind this is raised a bank or fence of clay, perforated for the admission of a tube, either of wood of the bark of a small tree, or of the horn of an ox, or other large animal.

NATIVE INDIAN BLACKSMITH.

Their bellows are variously formed, but in every instance a pair are used, being worked alternately, one with the right hand and the other with the left, so as to keep up a continuous blast. They are generally formed of goat or antelope skins of about the same size, which are skinned off as "sacks," and braiied or softened in the usual manner.

The sack is made by cutting the skin of the animal along the inside of the thighs, and then, without making any other incision, stripping it over the fore part of the body, the head being previously cut off, the skin of the legs is sewn or knotted up to prevent the escape of air. In one of the hinder legs of each bag is fitted a smaller tube, frequently of gemsbok horn, and to the sides of the aperture of the neck are sewn two pieces of stick with loops upon them for the insertion in one of the thumbs, and in the other of the fingers, so that by expanding the hand the neck can be opened while it is raised to inflate the bag, and closed up by grasping it tightly when it is pressed down to force the stream of air upon the fire; then by inflating and compressing the bags alternately, the primary object of a continuous and sufficient supply of air is obtained.

There are various modifications of form, in some of which more or less wood is very ingeniously used; but as the power of the whole depends entirely on the amount of air that can be inclosed in and forcibly expelled from the skin bags, we think the foregoing description will sufficiently answer the purpose.

If the traveller wishes-as an Englishman generally does-to stand up to his work, he can build up for his forge a square of rough stones, and then smooth over the top with a mixture of cattle dung and clay, of which last anthills broken up afford the finest quality; or if the hills are sufficiently large, he may at once smooth off the top of one and shape the embankment in the rear. But in this case he will also have to raise another platform, not only to carry his bellows, but for the blower to sit upon; for we doubt whether a native in the wilderness could be prevailed upon to blow them in any other position.

One of the most important portions of a waggon, and at the same time one most liable to damage, is the axle, and it is therefore of vital consequence that the traveller should understand properly how to set about repairing it.

New axles.

Suppose it be necessary to condemn the broken axle and make a new one; the first care is to seek out a tree of good hard wood-"kameel doorn" (Acacia giraff?) is about the best a traveller is generally likely to find, though many other varieties may be used-and in thinly wooded countries this may imply a day or more spent in searching for miles around, for the trunk should be of tolerably straight grain, solid, and capable of affording a log 6ft. or 7ft. in length, 10in. in depth, and 4in. in thickness. A yoke of oxen may be sent to draw it home, and it should then be truly, however roughly, squared up to the above dimensions.

The size of the aperture in the nave, both at the back and front of the wheel, should then be taken, they will generally be about 4in., tapering to 3in. or 2?in.; the length of the arm will probably be from 14in. to 16in. In cutting the arm nothing is to be tapered off from the front (Fig. 1) or from the lower part (Fig. 2), all the taper being cut from above and from behind, so that the wheels may incline a little inward in front and below, and if the axle arms should bend a little with the weight of cargo and with the forward draught, they may only have a tendency to resume a true position.

The arms should be carefully lined off in accordance with these rules, and in cutting the shoulder (Fig. 3) it should be squared, not from the edge of the axle, but from a line (dotted in the illustration) drawn along the centre of the arm, so that the back of the nave may bear truly against it. In cutting the shoulder be sure not to weaken the arm by letting the saw go, however little, beyond the proper depth, for where so great a pressure has to be borne the slightest cut would become the beginning of a fracture. When the arms have been cut and roughly rounded by saw and adze or axe, trim them with the spoke-shave, and occasionally try on the wheel, whirling it round to test the truthfulness of the work-there is almost sure to be sufficient grease or tar left in it to mark all the undue projections, and to leave clean the hollows on the arm, and the marks should be carefully examined that you may know what parts require to be trimmed away. It is now time to take off the iron work from the condemned axle; and sufficient notice should be taken of every piece, to know exactly to what portion of the woodwork it is to be restored, for much extra difficulty is occasioned by any uncertainty on this point. Bolts, though of the same apparent size, should not be transferred at random from one side to the other, and every nut, when once removed, should be scrupulously restored to the individual bolt it belongs to. These injunctions may seem needlessly strict; but we speak from experience, and if the reader has to attempt the work now under consideration he will do well to attend as strictly to them.

The iron skeins, or friction guards (Fig. 4), should be removed from the arms of the old axle and carefully let into the corresponding ones of the new; and when nearly fitted they may be slightly heated so as to char and smooth the bed for themselves, as well as to grip more tightly, in cooling, the wood they are meant to protect. Before fastening them with their proper bolts the wheels should be tried on to ascertain that they have been truly fitted.

Note.-The sketch above shows, on one side, the kap tent, or properly-built roof, and on the other, the wattled substitute. O is the front of the "kadel," or swinging bed frame, L, 8, M, on the next page, are the yokes, skeis, and trek gear, drawn to the scale given at the side.

If, as is most frequently the case, the new axle is a front one, it must now be fitted under the rest of the fore "stell" or "carriage" (H), the holes for the connecting bolts and perch-bolt marked and truly bored, and the clamps which bind it to the upper portion heated, driven into their place, and tightened by being suddenly cooled with water.

Sometimes, when it is not necessary, or wood sufficiently large cannot be procured, to make a new axle, a new arm (I) may be let in, and this should be scarfed and checked in, and the inner end (Fig. 5), which reaches nearly to the centre of the axle, cut, not square, but diagonally across, so that the after side is somewhat longer than the front, and this, preventing the inner end from coming forward, will also counteract the natural tendency of the draught to force the arm backward.

If the longitudinal cut (Fig. 6) for the scarf is also made not square across, but a little inclined upwards in front, it will also help to resist the backward pressure of the wheel. No fastening beyond the bolt which passes through the quarter of the axle and the band at the shoulder is absolutely necessary for the fixing of a new arm. We have, upon one occasion, not only made a new axle, but when, from unsoundness of timber, a new arm was necessary, have put in one on which the heavily-loaded waggon ran nearly 1000 miles; and besides this, the fore "tong" (J), or socket in which the dissel-boom or pole (K) works being much broken, we cut off the jaws on either side, and fitted new ones in a manner that will be much better understood by the above sketch than by description; and these, after running from the Zambesi to Otjimbengue, were still so firm that the professional waggon-wright, deemed it necessary only to secure them by the addition of a couple of bands put on hot, and shrunk down on them with water.

Repairing poles.

Frequently the "dissel-boom" or pole will break, but the cutting and fitting of a new one is too simple a matter to need much more instruction than a careful inspection of the old one will afford; it was our practice, however, to bore a hole perpendicularly downward behind the dissel-bolt (Fig. 7), and by means of a ?in. bolt and nut, tightly screwed, preserve the pole from splitting when subjected to a heavy strain.

Mr. Reeder, whom we met near the Zambesi, showed us a very ingenious plan of staying the dissel-boom when the fore tong was weakened. Chapman went out and shot a rhinoceros, and Reeder first nailed a chock upon the dissel-boom, and fixed on it a grummet of rhinoceros hide as tight as possible, then, taking a long, stout strip of the same, he hitched the middle of it on in front of the grummet, leading the parts to each side of the splinter bar, and thence under the axle to the bolts behind it, where the ends were thinned off sufficiently to admit of their being easily made fast. These stays did not come forward enough to gall the after oxen. The great virtue of raw hide is that, instead of slackening like rope when it dries, it shrinks, and becomes as hard as iron. Suppose a dissel-boom sprung where another could not be procured, the skin from the leg of an ox, or a wild animal of corresponding size-say a buffalo or quagga-drawn on while wet and allowed to dry, would make the joint firmer even than the unfractured part (Fig. 8). The skin from the tail of an ox will, in the same manner, mend a broken waggon whip; and that of a calf's tail is in like manner used by the Kafirs to bind the part where the iron of their assegais or light javelins is inserted into the shaft. Quagga skin, indeed, is especially used for this purpose, and hardly for any other, as it is so rigid that the ordinary means for softening leather are of no avail. Sometimes the Dutch farmers use the skin, just as it is stripped off, as a jar or barrel to hold corn or other produce.

The repair of wheels.

A long journey over rough roads and in an intensely hot country, like Africa in the dry season, will tell upon the best-made wheels, and the spokes and tires will become loose most frequently where it is impossible properly to rectify the defect. In such cases a number of wedges of dry, straight-grained wood must be prepared, and for this purpose some box or packing-case, made of deal, must be sacrificed, as it will be almost impossible to procure anything so suitable in the bush; the plank must be cut into pieces between 3in. and 4in. long, and, if these are again sawn diagonally along their length, material will be saved by the production of two wedges, where only one could have been made by the whittling process. These must be driven tightly in from back and front, between the felloe and the tire, and as equally as possible all round the wheel; if they are then wetted with, and allowed to absorb, a strong solution of salt in water, they will swell, and will not again shrink as they would if wetted with water only. We knew one very practical Englishman who used to soak his wedges in salt and water before driving them in, but what he gained by thus previously swelling them we never were able to learn. If the spokes become loose in the nave the temporary remedy is to cut two stout bars, in length just equal to the diameter of the wheel; half check them so as to give them a better hold on the felloe; lay them parallel to each other on the front of the wheel, one on each side the nave, and bind every spoke as firmly as possible to them with thongs of raw hide, taking care to keep the lashings quite close to the centre of the wheel; the drying up of the thongs will shrink them so much that the fabric of the wheel will be as firmly bound together as if clamped with iron.

If a spoke be broken, cut a new one much thicker than the rest, half check it on to the back of the felloe, and let the other end abut upon the nave, filling up nearly the space between the sound spokes on either side; it should need to be driven in tightly, and, when in position, should be secured by thongs of raw hide, both at the nave and at the felloe, to sticks laid across the front of the spokes on either side, and securely lashed to them.

Lead, and its uses.

Lead is useful for a multitude of purposes; its great specific gravity, and the ease with which it can be melted, cut, hammered, moulded, and bent, render it especially valuable as a handy metal. Our space will not admit of our giving more than a few of the most noteworthy purposes to which it can be applied by the hunter and explorer. Projectiles of all sizes can be made from it, from the ponderous cannon shot to the small sizes used by the hunter naturalist.

Cannon shot.

Round shot for artillery, of excellent quality, can be manufactured from lead; and there is no doubt that for certain purposes it is far superior to the iron missiles in general use, the cheapness of the latter material being its great recommendation. It will sometimes happen in wild countries that although regular cannon balls are not obtainable lead is, and to make round shot from it two or three methods may be adopted. The first is to form a ball from well-mixed clay, or carve one from wood, of size to fit the bore of the piece easily, but not too loosely. The clay ball will require thorough drying in the sun or before a slow fire before use. The wooden one will merely require sprinkling over with fine ashes from the camp fire to fit it for use. Two large calabashes, wooden boxes, bowls, or cooking pots, are now to be rather more than filled with well-kneaded clay, which has been carefully freed from stones or grit, pressing it well down with a flat board until it is quite even at the surface and is perfectly compact. The clay round the edges of the two clay holders must now be trimmed off with a knife even with the sides of the holders, but projecting about an inch beyond the brim. The surface of each is now to be sprinkled with very fine ashes, and the ball pressed into the centre of the clay until it is half imbedded. It is then to be carefully removed, and pressed in like manner on the other holder. The ball is then taken out and laid aside, the two holders being allowed to dry slowly, care being taken that the clay is not cracked by the too sudden application of heat. When thoroughly dry, the vessels or holders are to be placed mouth to mouth, and so fitted, by scraping the clay, that the two indentations formed by the ball fit exactly facing each other; when this has been done, a funnel-shaped inlet must be cut for the admission of the molten lead. The two holders may now be put together, secured with a lashing of cord or strips of hide, and the metal run in at the inlet. Some time must be allowed to elapse before the mould is disturbed, or the lead will not have sufficiently settled to admit of the shot being removed without injury to the apparatus. The tail of lead formed by the inlet serves to lift the shot out by, and is then cut off flush with the surface. A number of balls may with care be made with the same pair of holders, only the greatest caution is needed in this, as with all other operations in which molten lead is used, to guard against the presence of moisture in the mould, or most serious accidents will happen.

We were busily engaged one night over the camp fire casting heavy bullets for our large smooth bore, making use of an iron ladle for the lead, and a large pair of iron moulds for the balls. These had become rather hot and were laid aside to cool; and whilst this was doing, as the lead was beginning to run rather short, we started for the tent to get more, desiring one of the Indians, who was keeping up the fire and generally aiding in the operations, to go on casting so soon as the moulds were cool. That no time might be lost, our dusky assistant plunged the hot mould in a pot of water, closed it up, and proceeded to pour in the charge of heated metal, when a violent explosion instantly took place, scattering the boiling lead broadcast over the naked legs and bodies of the unfortunate natives, sending the ladle one way, the mould another, and causing a perfect panic and dire dismay throughout the party.

Soft stones of many kinds can be conveniently made use of for casting in, taking two of equal size, scooping out the cavity in each stone of the form intended to be given to the casting, and then cutting an inlet. Common Bath scouring bricks answer this purpose admirably. We constantly use them for casting fishing leads, plummets, bodies for artificial baits, &c. &c. Two bricks, or portions of brick, are made use of. The surfaces are rendered smooth by rubbing them together. The intended cavity is then marked with a sharp point on each half, and scooped neatly out with a knife, chisel, or other convenient instrument; when finished, notched, and the inlet cut, the two halves are tied together with tape and the lead poured in. Objects of six or seven pounds weight can be made by the use of two common scouring bricks. Balls of large size are often made in the East by hammering square masses of lead, or iron, on an anvil until sufficiently round for use. Great labour and no little skill are required to perform the operation, which after all leads to very unsatisfactory results, the balls being rough and untrue, corresponding with the interiors of the barrels they are intended to be fired from. We have seen heavy stones and bits of iron covered with lead fired from the most unpromising looking matchlocks, which, somehow or another, deliver their charge with greater force and accuracy than would be anticipated on a first examination. The best moulds for casting bullets of all sizes and forms are those made from gun-metal, bronze, or brass.

Buck-shot mould.

A buck-shot mould of either of these materials will be found of great value. We have one which has proved on many occasions of the greatest service; it is constructed to contain two rows of cavities for the shot, seven in each row, one above the other; so that when the groove leading to the inlets is filled with lead, and all the cavities are charged, the second row is turned upwards and treated in the same manner. The shot, when cold, are cut from their necks with a knife or strong pair of scissors, and are then fit for use. They should be about the size of common peas, and a charge of them from a large powerful gun is tremendously effective; they are extremely useful for deer jumping, antelope shooting, wild goose or bustard stalking. At very short distances, and in close encounter with a large animal, they may be used with destructive effect, but must be only considered in the light of a makeshift when the true large game of the forest has to be dealt with. Against attacking hordes of savages, in a bush fight, or canoe encounter, they are invaluable. The charge must be proportioned to the size of the guns; those of heavy metal and large bore generally deliver them best.

Slugs, to make.

Slugs are to be made by filling a box or large pot with fine clean sand, forcing it down tight, and then with a smooth round stick, about the size of a small pencil, making a number of holes from the surface to the bottom of the vessel or receiver in which the sand has been placed. When as many are made as the space will admit of, pour the molten lead steadily into them until they are filled; when cold, the sand can be thrown out, and the leaden rods or pencils separated from it. These, when laid on a board in rows, can be cut up into short junks by placing a strong knife on them, and striking it on the back with any convenient instrument. Thick sheets of lead are cut up into dice in much the same manner. These are usually shaken about in a tin box or an iron pot, in order to round off the corners.

Shot, to make.

The manufacture of shot by the amateur, although not quite as easy of accomplishment as the preparation of slugs, may be, with the exercise of a little ingenuity, successfully carried out; and although the produce of his labours will not equal the perfect spheres produced by the professional shot manufacturer, by the aid of his costly tower, yet it will be good enough for the description of shooting he will be likely to obtain in situations where the making of shot is rendered necessary. We were driven to the necessity of devising the plan we are about to describe by the impossibility of obtaining shot, coupled with the urgent want of that to be procured with it. Thus is the operation to be conducted:-A piece of iron, such as horse-shoes are made from, is to be obtained if possible, if not, any other piece of iron, about 2ft. long and of moderate width and thickness, will answer the purpose. About an inch from the end of this drill a wide-mouthed, funnel-shaped hole, of the form known as a countersink, until within about the eighth of an inch of going through the bar; then, with a drill about the size of a knitting-needle, extend the hole quite through; next, get a piece of dry plank, about 3ft. long, and in it, with a handsaw, cut as many longitudinal cuts as the width of the board will admit of, making them a little over the eighth of an inch deep and the thickness of the saw wide. The board, when placed slightly on the incline, must be so treated with a charge of molten lead that all the cuts are filled with it from the upper end; the result will be the formation of a great number of long lead wires. These are to be taken from the grooves and fresh batches run, until as many pounds have been made as it is intended to make shot. A preserved-meat tin, or an ordinary tin pot, must now be about one-third filled with water, and the remaining two-thirds filled up with oil; the pot must be placed on a plate or dish, in order to catch any oil which may run over as the work proceeds. The end of the iron bar which has the hole in it is now to be placed in the fire and heated to a bright-red heat: when the other end, round which a piece of cloth may be bound, is grasped with the left hand, and the bar quickly withdrawn from the fire, struck smartly against some solid body, in order to remove adhering dust and ashes, and then held with the wide mouth of the hole upward, a short distance above the surface of the oil in the pot. A lead wire is now to be quickly taken up in the right hand and its end pressed well down into the hole (as shown in the above illustration); if the iron is well heated, the wire will melt away very rapidly and run in a succession of drops into the oil: wire after wire is to be thus melted, until the iron requires reheating. (It is a good plan to have two or more irons at work, but it is not essential.) This wire-melting process must be continued until all the stock has been expended, when the solid contents of the pot may be taken out. If the operation of dropping has been properly performed the result will be shot of about three sizes-No. 7, No. 4, and duck shot. Certain conditional circumstances somewhat alter these sizes, but approximately they are to be expected, and a certain number more or less tailed will generally be found amongst the rest. To separate the three sizes of round shot two flat tin boxes or empty sardine tins are required. With a piece of nail filed down, so as to make a hole the size to just let No. 7 shot through, punch a number of holes in the bottom of one of the boxes, so as to make a sort of sieve of it; then with another nail make holes in the bottom of the second box, just large enough to let your No. 4 through. When these are prepared, wash your mixed shot in water, with wood ashes in it; this removes all the oil in the form of soap. The shot, when dry, is ready for sifting with the boxes. The first box lets only No. 7 or a size or so smaller through, keeping back the No. 4. The second box lets the No. 4 through, retaining the duck shot. Each size may now have its own respective tailers, or pear-shaped shot, mixed with it; these can be got rid of by allowing the shot to run down over a sloping board, when the round shot run straight to the bottom, whilst the tailers run off at the sides, and can be collected to melt up again.

Lead plates, to make.

Plates of lead for writing inscriptions on can be cast by turning up the edges of a piece of sheet copper, iron, or tin, just high enough to form a sort of shallow tray to hold the molten lead. In the absence of sheet metal, the surface of a box of sand, or a flat stone with a little wall of clay round it, may be made use of.

Lead pencils and stock whip handles.

Lead pencils, for rough carpenter's work, can be made by filling joints of small cane, marsh reeds, or weed stalks, with melted lead, and then pointing them with a knife. The handles of stock whips and some other implements are weighted, and prevented from splitting, by having lead run into them; some of the former are occasionally very elaborately ornamented. The operation is performed by first cutting out the intended pattern on the handle with a sharp-pointed knife or other instrument, taking care that the cutting penetrates the wood deeply, that the form of the groove is slightly undercut, and that each ring of the pattern communicates with the one below it. The first ring on the stick must have an inlet made in it; strips of stout brown paper are now, after being slightly moistened and touched over with paste, rolled round the stick, layer after layer in spiral form, until its whole length has been thickly covered like the case of a rocket. When thoroughly dry the lead is run in at the inlet, and when cold the paper can be stripped off, and the handle finished off and polished with sand-paper or a bit of fish-skin.

Bruised gun-barrels, to repair.

Indentations in the sides of gun or rifle barrels can be taken out by the following process:-Take the barrel out of the stock; cut a cork so as to fit the muzzle tightly, and then force it down three inches, ram in about a quarter of an inch of dry powdered clay on the cork, twist a cloth dipped in cold water several times round the barrel in order to prevent the rib from becoming unsoldered by heat, and then fill up the space above the clay with molten hardened lead. (See "To harden bullets," p. 228.) You will then have a metal plug exactly fitting the barrel. Remove the cork and clay, and fashion from strong hardwood a rod just long enough to reach a few inches beyond the indentation. A bar of iron is now to be heated to a red heat, and placed against the indented spot on the outside of the barrel; the wet cloth being at the same time wound above and below it. The metal plug is now to be forced down the tube with the rod until it rests on the obstruction, when a few blows with a piece of heavy wood on the upper end of the rod will generally pass the plug onwards by forcing the tube back to its proper position. It will be well to reverse ends with the plug and force it up and down several times, until it travels quite freely past the point of obstruction.

Make-shift rifle shells.

Rifle shells may be extemporised by having little tin tubes the length of the conical bullet and the size of the gun nipple made. These, when their ends have been plugged with wood, are placed one by one in the mould, held upright by a bit of very fine brass wire, and the lead cast round them, so that the lead at the base of the bullet may extend beyond the end of the tube and cover it. The thin end of the tube should project just a trifle beyond the apex of the cone, as a rest for the cap. The wooden plug at this end is now taken out; the tube filled with the best sporting powder, and a strong, well made percussion-cap put on the tube, and secured there with strong varnish, sealing-wax, or pitch. The loading of a breech-loader with these is accomplished with no danger, but with a muzzle-loader the very greatest caution is required. The end of the ramrod or loading stick should be very deeply countersunk, in order to take all pressure off the cap; and even with this precaution it is well to make use of an overhanging branch of a tree to place the rod against, whilst the rifle is thrust muzzle upwards until the ball is home. Shells somewhat on this principle were first brought into notice by the late General Jacob, of the Scinde Irregular Horse. They are tremendously destructive when skilfully used: destroying large animals by exploding in them, and blowing up magazines of gunpowder at all but incredible distances; but we have known them explode outside the elephant and other large pachyderms, thus failing completely in the object they were used for. Mr. Metford's improvement on the Jacob shell is worthy of remark. Finding that it did not always explode, he mixed equal parts of chlorate of potass and sulphate of antimony; the two can be mixed on a plate with a bone paper-cutter or a quill pen. The more they are mixed, the more sensitive is their detonating power. The bullets are moulded with a hole from point nearly to base, as for Jacob's shells, but no copper tube is used. The powder is filled in with a quill to the top, and settled down by a few taps of the base of the bullet on a table, and the end is then stopped with wax. But it is very questionable whether, in close encounter with large animals, it is not better, after all, to rely on the more certain effects of heavy balls of ordinary construction, with strong charges of powder behind them. With the numerous improvements in rifle shells we cannot deal, as many of them are too complex in their component parts for a wandering hunter or explorer to be able to imitate successfully.

Ladles, spoons, and other substitutes.

Small ladles or iron spoons are usually used to melt lead in, but, in the absence of these, bullets and other small matters may be cast in the following manner, which is a favourite one amongst the Indians:-A piece of dry hard wood, about 16in. long, 3in. broad, and 2in. thick, is prepared; on one end of this a spoon-shaped cavity, with a lip-shaped groove in the end, is made; in the bottom of this a few red-hot wood embers from the fire are placed on these same fragments of flattened lead, and on the lead some good-sized pieces of red-hot embers. A bit of bark is now twisted into a blow-pipe, from which a steady stream of air is directed to the miniature furnace, which almost instantly melts the lead, and fits it for running by the lip into the mould, just as it would from a spoon. Clean, excellent bullets are to be made in this way.

Lead ore smelting.

It sometimes happens that lead ore or galena is discovered. Lead as a metal, except in very rare instances, is not found in a native or malleable form; and as the ore is a sulphuret, brittle, and easily pulverised, some method must be had recourse to in order to smelt and render it fit for use. Some Indians do it in the following manner:-After reducing a large quantity of the ore to powder, between heavy stones, they seek out a hollow tree stump, clear out the bottom flush with the ground, and dig a pit just outside it. Then on the bottom or floor of the stump a thick layer of dry wood is placed, evenly on this a layer of the powdered ore, then another layer of wood, then one of ore, and so on until the stump is quite full. A small hole is then chopped with a tomahawk through the side of the stump, level with the ground and opposite the pit. Through this orifice fire is introduced, and the stump soon becomes a mass of glowing heat as the air rushes in at the hole at the bottom; so fast as the galena (which is usually very pure) is reduced to melted lead it trickles through the interstices of the heated pile, and runs out into the pit, where it is allowed to settle and cool.

The Dutch-Africans like to have their bullets of such a size that when one is put into a clean barrel it passes slowly down without rattling, the slight noise of the escaping air being heard as it descends. In a skirmish they load very quickly; the powder is poured from the large ox-horn into the hollow of the hand, and thence into the gun: a number of bullets are held in the mouth, one is dropped in, and the moisture cakes the powder round and holds it in its place with a very slight tap from the ramrod, or sometimes perhaps without; though we should never advise any one to incur so great a risk of bursting his gun.

LEAD SMELTING IN THE FOREST.

To harden bullets.

For such game as the elephant or rhinoceros the hunters harden their bullets with a little tin-not more than one-tenth; if too much is added it makes the bullet brittle, and detracts from its specific gravity; it should be just hard enough to show a slight indentation when bitten. The lead must be first melted as requiring the greater heat, and the tin added afterwards. Type metal, or worn-out type from printing offices, is much used for this purpose; but quicksilver, which, from its own great specific gravity, does not detract from the weight of the bullet, is the best alloy. Sir S. Baker says:-"The lead is melted in a pot, which is kept at red heat. Enough to make three or four bullets is taken in a smaller ladle, and one-tenth of quicksilver added and stirred into it with a bit of iron, as if the quicksilver is exposed to the great heat of the larger pot it will soon evaporate. The rifle bullets used in the army, being compressed instead of cast, are hard enough without alloy; and in breech-loaders, where the bullet has to pass through a barrel which is generally a trifle smaller than the chamber, it would be unsafe to harden it too much."

Cleft bullets.

The Fingoes and Kafirs cut a small piece off two bullets, so as to produce flat surfaces (Fig. 1); then, while the lead is still clean, press them strongly together, giving them a half turn to expel the air and bring them perfectly in contact. They will adhere so strongly as to bear throwing on the ground, and when fired at a hundred yards will separate only a few inches. A bullet cleft very nearly through with two cuts, so that it spreads into four parts (Fig. 2), makes a fearful wound at close quarters-a conical cut from its base (Fig. 3) particularly so. Sometimes two bullets are connected by a bit of bell wire rolled up spirally as a spring (Fig. 4). We have seen bundles of nails bound together with wire by the rebel Hottentots in imitation of conical bullets. The Kafirs use bits of the legs of iron pots. Some of the native hunters use iron bullets, or rather bolts twice as long as their diameter; but they creep so close that they cannot miss, and follow the wounded animal till he dies, so that they always recover their bullet.

Extemporising bullet moulds.

Bullet moulds may be extemporised in many ways. Two shallow boxes may be made and filled with loam or clay, much as the moulds for cannon shot, before described, are made (of which last no material is better than a pounded anthill), and the surface of the lower one must be smooth. A piece of stiff paper pierced with holes the size of the bullet laid on it, and as many bullets as convenient pressed half way into the clay, the other half must then be pressed down upon it, and when nearly dry the bullets must be taken out, holes made through to the outer surface, on which a small channel should be cut, so that the lead may run to the entrance and not waste itself by spreading. Most likely the mould would be damaged after two or three castings, but it is easy to make a new one. The Dutch boers frequently use blocks of steatite or soapstone, with half the bullet cut into each, and pegs or projections on one half, with corresponding hollows in the other, keep the two parts in true position (Fig. 5).

In Sydney we required a conical bullet mould; and, as such things were not generally kept for sale, we engaged a founder to make a solid block of brass, as in Fig. 6, and in this to bore a cylindro-conical hole, point downwards, about ? in. deeper than the length of the bullet; another piece was made with a handle at one end, and at the other a projection (Fig. 7), to fit into the block and give the form of the hollow back of the bullet; a hole was bored through this a little smaller above than below, so that when the superfluous lead was cut off the bullet would come away with a tail about 1 in. long, tapering to the end; this was easily cut off with proper pincers; there was a small notch cut up the side of the inserted block so as to allow of the escape of air as the lead was poured in. In some conical moulds the lead is poured in from the side, and in others from the point. We do not approve of either of these methods. The greatest hardness, weight, and density should be at the point, and therefore this should be downward in the mould, while the metal is poured in at the base.

Of course the great range acquired by some of our most perfect rifles with cylinder conical bullets is an immense advantage, for if animals cannot be approached they may be shot at long ranges; and very frequently during the last Kafir war, while parties with the common musket have been defending themselves against savages who occupied almost impregnable positions, those among the colonists who possessed long ranged rifles would occupy a hill perhaps a couple of thousand yards off, and send bullets among the enemy with quite sufficient accuracy to create a very uncomfortable feeling of insecurity.

A very favourite form of gun was a double-barrel, with one barrel rifled, and very carefully sighted for long ranges, and the other plain, and capable of throwing a good charge of buck shot, which we have seen very effectively used at thirty or forty yards.

Sporting rifles.

When the elephant hunters lie at the water by night, and shoot at very close quarters, they find that a sharp-pointed conical with very high velocity, pierces so suddenly and sharply, that the animal feels no shock to the nervous system, and gets away for many miles, and dies beyond their reach. They therefore choose a short, smooth-bore gun, with a very large round bullet. We have seen them as large as half a pound; and this, with a comparatively small charge of powder, say 9drs. or 10drs., bruises rather than pierces, communicating such a shock to the adjacent parts that the creature is stunned as well as wounded, and is not able to make those marvellous last efforts that in the former case would enable him at least to die in peace far out of reach of his pursuers. We, after a fair trial of the conical ball in India, abandoned it on account of the quantity of wounded game lost, and returned to the old spherical projectile.

Cartridge making.

Improvements in guns are long before they are generally adopted in wild and distant countries. The old flint musket is to this day the favoured weapon of most of the border tribes of South Africa, America, and the East; it will shoot quite well enough for them, and, if of military make, it lasts a long time in comparatively good order. Percussion guns found their way very slowly even among the Dutch colonists; many admitted their superiority, but there was always the uncertainty of being able to obtain a supply of caps, and, in the same way, many excellent forms of breech-loaders cannot be adopted by persons travelling or residing far from civilisation, because complicated and expensive cartridges are required, and when the supply runs short the gun is useless. And sometimes, because however perfect the gun may be while well taken care of, its delicate adjustments soon give way under the rough wear and tear of actual hard service. The advantages of facility in reloading, especially on horseback, or while running after or away from the game or enemy, are so great that if a breech-loader can be made sufficiently strong and simple in all its parts, capable of being used as a muzzle-loader on emergencies, or with cartridges so simple that a person of ordinary skill can make them for himself, it will surely commend itself to men whose lives, in many cases, depend upon the effectiveness of their guns. It would be invidious in us to compare the merits of the various forms. We have already mentioned the satisfaction with which we used the single-barrelled Wilson breech-loader, the simplicity and strength of which, combined with facility of loading, were all that could be desired, unless, indeed, it were made self-capping, which we believe could easily be done. A metal breech-plug, to be inserted when required, converts it into a muzzle-loader; but then a smaller size of bullet must be used, and the cartridges are so simple and inexpensive, that we found it more easy to make them on the spot. The materials required were a few sheets of tissue paper, a quantity of felt wads, tolerably stout, half of them the exact size of the bore, and the rest a little smaller. A piece of tin of the form and size indicated by the diagonal lines (Fig. 1) in our illustration was used as a pattern by which to cut the paper. The straight edge that was to surround the bullet, and the farthest diagonal side, were touched with a little gum, gathered from the nearest mimosa. A small cylinder of wood (Fig. 3) was then taken by the knob, in the left hand, and, with the right, the hollow base of the bullet (Fig. 2) was fitted on to the convex end, laid fairly on the paper (Fig. 6) and rolled forward until the cartridge case was formed. The wood was then withdrawn, and the paper, adhering to the bullet, left to dry. When a sufficient number were completed, they were set upright in any convenient trough, or in a block of wood (Fig. 7), 3in. deep, bored with holes of the proper size (Fig. 11). The charge of powder was poured into each and covered with a small disc of card or paper. One of the small wads, saturated with grease, was next put in (Fig. 8), the superfluous paper folded down on it (Fig. 9), and a full-sized wad was then affixed to the end with a drop of gum (Fig. 10). The tissue paper was quite strong enough to confine the powder, and a military cap, of fair average quality, never failed to drive the fire through it to the charge. We found it best to saturate our wads by melting, or rather heating, our hardest fat nearly to boiling point, throwing them in and letting them absorb as much as possible, and then spreading them out on a clean surface to cool. Of course we carried a couple of wad punches of the proper size in case our supply should run short. In making a cartridge for a muzzle-loading rifle, the wooden roller should have a hollow to receive the point of the bullet; the bullet is placed on the paper with the base towards the right hand, just so far within the edge as to allow a wad to be put behind, and the paper turned down over it. The powder is then measured into the case on the point, and, in loading, the powder is first poured into the gun, then the bullet is reversed and the paper torn off before it is rammed down. It is questionable, however, whether any form of single-barrelled rifle or shot gun can compete with a double barrel for general usefulness and efficiency. Whilst on the subject of cartridges, it may not be amiss to refer to the tallow cartridges used for shot guns. They add greatly to the length of range, and are extremely valuable for wildfowl shooting. The following communication to the Field newspaper will serve to explain the mode to be observed in their manufacture:-

Grease cartridges, to make.

"A represents a piece of common cartridge paper; B a roller of boxwood, or any hard wood, turned to the size to admit the paper A being rolled once round it, and then fitting into the chamber C; C a chamber turned out of a solid piece of wood, the chamber to be the exact size of bore of gun the cartridges are intended for. To make the cartridges, cut a piece of paper in the shape of the drawing A, cutting the top to the width requisite, to allow the paper at top to overlap nearly a quarter of an inch; then gum the edge of the paper to about the eighth of an inch, as marked by the dotted line on the drawing A. Place the roller B on to the paper at D, and roll up firmly; wind round it a little thread, to keep the paper from slipping. In a few minutes it will be dry. You can then push the roller out of the case, and proceed in the same way till you have enough cases. Secondly, take the roller and return it to the case, excepting that you leave the roller exposed at the top, say for 16-gauge about ?in.; place the case and roller in the chamber, bottom upwards, then take some fine strong twine and place round as in drawing No. 1. When drawn tight, tie firmly, and it will appear as in No. 2: then reverse the roller and case, bringing the tied end down to bottom of chamber, press down hard to flatten the bottom of case, draw out the roller, pour into the case some melted tallow of about the consistency of cream, and then put in your charge of shot, having sufficient quantity of tallow to just cover the shot. Put by until cool; when set firm, place on the top of the tallow a leather wad (the size for 16-gauge cartridge will be 18-gauge). Any leather not too thick will do, and you can cut the wads out with a punch. Turn down the case neatly over the leather wad, and make fast with sealing-wax. When loading place the tied end of cartridge next to the powder. These directions are for both muzzle and breech-loaders, the only difference being in the roller, which for muzzle-loaders must be made 1?16in. smaller at the bottom end, as marked by the dots in drawing B. After a little practice the cartridges do not take long to make."

Makeshift cartridges.

Wherever the means of transport will permit, take plenty of Ely's wire cartridges, but when they cannot be obtained, a makeshift form, well adapted for general use, may be made as follows:-Prepare a stick, about 18in. long, by rounding it carefully and making it fit the bore of your gun loosely. Round this take two or three turns of oiled silk, such as chemists sell. Then draw off the end of the stick tube enough to hold the charge of shot and admit of two ties being made round it. Now, with a piece of fine twine, put on the first tie close to the stick; then put in your charge of shot, and when it is shaken into place, put the other tie on the outer end, just as sausage skins are secured. The cartridge is now complete, and can be cut off next the stick, when you proceed as before until all the tube has been used. We manufactured a great number of these in Tartary, and found them hard-hitting and durable. We usually carried a waistcoat pocket full of them, and rammed one down on each charge of powder without any wad between the cartridge and powder, but always placed one over the cartridge, in order to prevent it from rising in the barrel. Cartridges of this description kill considerably farther than a loose charge, and are exceedingly handy when shooting from the horse's back. We, with 1oz. of No. 4, killed in this way, near Phoros Pass, an eagle, which we gave Captain Blackiston, R.A., who, we believe, deposited it in the Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich. The fingers of old kid gloves should always be kept, as they serve as excellent covers both for shot and ball. Shot will require one tie to keep it in; balls will remain in without fastening. A little grease or oil should be smeared over them when first made.

Hints on firearms.

On many occasions we have been obliged to fire shot from a rifle, for the purpose of obtaining birds, when the smooth-bores were not at hand. Either the oiled silk or glove-finger cartridge is very far superior to a loose charge. In loading ordinary guns with loose shot, it sometimes happens that a few grains get dropped into the loaded barrel between the ramrod head and the barrel. When this happens, invert the gun, pass the rod upwards, and the shot will fall out, when the rod can be withdrawn. The ramrod will also at times get firmly fixed in a foul barrel, and defy every ordinary effort to get it out. A little water, spirit, or any other fluid poured down the barrel almost instantly releases it. Should a gun or rifle miss fire, or be exposed for any time to damp, cut a small peg of dry, soft wood, hammer it well down into the nipple, cut it off flush, put on a new cap, and pull the trigger, when the weapon is almost certain to go off. We first saw this plan in use among the Sardinian Bersigliari, and have since found it answer perfectly.

When hunting through wet jungles, or the reeds of the marsh, percussion caps can be rendered almost waterproof by melting a little beeswax on a piece of tin and then dipping the mouth of each separate cap in it. These, when cold, are set aside for use. When placed on the nipple, the wax forms a shield between the cap and nipple, which prevents the water from working its way up. All vegetable oil used about gun-locks should be prepared as follows:-Partly fill a common vial with oil, throw in a half charge of shot, hang it in the air with the cork out, and in a few days drain off all the clear oil from the top for use.

Gun cleaning.

Spirits of turpentine, when it can be procured, is very valuable for cleaning the interiors of guns, pistols, and rifles. When water is used, wash the barrels out thoroughly with cold water, making use of a tough wooden rod with a number of notches at the end. Round this a piece of woollen cloth may be twisted until of a size to act as a sucker in the barrel. Woollen is better than tow, linen, or cotton, as there is no danger of ignitable threads being left behind, and it can be used repeatedly by washing and drying it. When the barrels are thoroughly clean, fill them with boiling water. When this has all run off through the nipple holes, commence with a fresh strip of cloth to dry out the barrels, which must be held in a folded cloth, in order to guard the hand from the heat of the water. When quite dry, and before the barrels are cold, finish off with a little spirits of turpentine. Lead may be removed by the use of a little quicksilver. The cleaning of fire-arms in a wild country is a matter of the very greatest importance, and should never be entrusted to servants, unless, from long service and great experience, they may be implicitly depended on. Even with such followers about us, we always, however fatigued, clean our own guns.

It not unfrequently happens that white men residing alone or in small communities in the vicinity of numerous and powerful native tribes possess cannon of some kind or other, generally small signal guns from merchant ships, perhaps recovered from wrecks upon the coast, or field-pieces abandoned as not worth the trouble of bringing away when some military outpost has ceased to be occupied.

Mounting cannon.

During 1863 and 1864 the barbarous and desultory war between the Namaqua Hottentots and the Damaras, whom they had so long oppressed, was keeping the country in a state of alarm for many hundred miles around, and we were requested to take charge of a couple of brass yacht guns. It was necessary to mount them, so that they might be easily moved from point to point on the plain around the village; and for this purpose we took for each the hinder wheels and axle of a Cape waggon, inserting a pole to serve as the "trail" into the socket of the "lang-wagen" in the centre of the axle; we then took a plank of stinkwood, 1ft. wide, 3in. thick, and about 4ft. long. About 1ft. from the foremost end a stout bolt passed through it and the centre of the axle so as to let it work freely, the after end was tapered to a point and travelled on a quadrant, made from the felloe of an after wheel.

On this, as a swivel bed, we bolted down a pair of cheeks of 2in. stinkwood to carry the guns. The quoins and wedges ran in grooves, formed by 1in. slips of stinkwood nailed upon the bed, to which they were secured by lanyards of raw hide; the boxes for ammunition on either side were covered with raw hide, and that containing the powder was thickly lined with green baize; the matches were kept in a small box in front of the gun-carriage; the fuze-holder was made from the segment of a hollow brass curtain ring fixed to a handle of hard wood; the fuze itself was a strip of calico 1in. broad, doubled and loosely twisted into a two-stranded rope; it was steeped in a solution of gunpowder, and the colour indicated its strength-light grey was slow match, and dark grey was quick.

As we did not contemplate moving the guns farther than necessary for the defence of the village, we made no provision for yoking draught oxen, but this could easily have been done if needed. It was enough for our purpose to provide man ropes, one pair behind the gun and one before, so that, either in advance or retreat, its muzzle might be towards the enemy.

The bullets were all tied up in calico, with wads made by cutting off sections of soft deal rods, and cartridges of twelve or fourteen musket balls or fifty revolver bullets were made up.

TIME GUN.

Time guns.

One use to which one of our guns was put is shown in the illustration. We were asked to repair the clock, but this is always difficult, and it is uncertain how long it may go correctly afterwards. We therefore erected a frame over the gun, and fitted the lens of a camera on an axle placed due east and west, so that it could turn in the plane of the meridian, and so be adapted to the sun's gradual change of declination. Below the lens we fitted a piece of tin with its edges turned downwards, to hold a piece of quick match, a strip of calico, steeped in a strong solution of gunpowder, beneath it; a small slit in the tin was then so adjusted as to let the focus of light fall through it exactly at 12 o'clock; a small clip of tin confined the other end of the match over the vent. The moment of noon was announced with a regularity that no clock in our possession could have attained; and one great advantage was, that if by the interposition of a cloud, which would not happen once in nine months, the gun should fail to fire at the proper moment, it could not go wrong, for the speck of light would pass the narrow slit, and no discharge would take place till the next day.

The absence of the cap squares of a gun can be remedied by lashing the metal firmly down to the carriage with a raw hide rope, and then twisting it up tight with a stick, as shown in the above illustration; which also exhibits the mode of raising a gun by making use of the trail as a lever. A heavy gun may be mounted by letting its muzzle into a hole in the ground while the carriage is run under it.

Percussion caps and substitutes.

During the continuance of the Damara and Hottentot war we were becoming exceedingly short of percussion caps, and were obliged not only very carefully to husband the few that were left, but to turn our attention to the manufacture of substitutes. The tips of Congreve matches, with the wood cut to a point so as to stick in the nipple of the gun, proved very effective, but were liable to be brushed or shaken off, or to become damp if carried for any length of time before firing. We, therefore, first inclosed the end of the match in the shell of an expended cap, and finding this answer, we dissolved the composition, and put a drop into the cap without the wood; we then dissolved it off a whole box of matches at a time, and with a camel-hair pencil put small drops into as many cap shells as it would serve. This answered admirably; but our next fear was that the supply of matches would run short, and therefore, drawing on our own artificial horizon for the quicksilver, on the photographic stores for nitric acid, and on our friends, the missionaries, for a supply of alcohol from their natural-history department, we set about the manufacture of fulminate of mercury according to the following recipe:-Dissolve 10 grs. of mercury in 1? oz., by measure, of nitric acid; the solution is poured cold into 2 oz., by measure, of alcohol in a glass vessel, and gentle heat is applied till effervescence is excited, though it ordinarily comes on at common temperatures, a white vapour undulates on the surface, and a powder is gradually precipitated, which is immediately to be collected in a filter, well washed, and cautiously dried. It detonates by gentle heat or slight friction. Two grains and a half, with one-sixth of gunpowder, form the quantity for one percussion cap. We used a conical twist of blotting-paper for the filter, and mixed the fulminate, while still moist, with a small palette knife upon a plate with the gunpowder, treating it very gently, and in small quantities. We collected all the shells of expended caps, and for new ones cut out a cross of thin copper; then, making a hole in a piece of iron and a punch the size of the nipple, we drove the centre of the cross in, and the shell was formed. Stiff cartridge-paper stiffened with gum would have answered for dry weather, but would not have been secure against wet.

Brass guns and their charges.

The block-houses erected by the Hudson's Bay Company, as dep?ts and forts in connection with the fur trade, usually have guns mounted in them. Brass field guns and howitzers are also at times to be met with at the border stations of wild countries, and it may, therefore, be well to know the charges and ranges of the ordinary kinds, which are as follows:

BRASS FIELD GUNS.

6-pounder Gun. Weight, 6cwt. Service Charge, 1?lb.

Elevation. Ranges.

Round Shot. Shrapnel. Case. Length of

fuse.

P.B. 310 - 100 ·3

?° 470 450 150 ·4

1 620 600 200 ·5

1? 760 710 250 ·6

2 890 820 300 ·7

2? 1000 920 - ·8

3 1100 1020 - ·9

3? 1190 1110 - 1·

4 1280 1180 - 1·

4? 1370 1250 - -

5 1450 1320 - -

5? 1530 1380 - -

6 1600 1440 - -

6-pounder Gun. Weight, 6cwt. Service Charge, 1?lb.

Elevation. Ranges.

Round Shot. Shrapnel. Case. Length of

fuse.

P.B. 300 - 150 -

0?° 500 - 200 -

1 680 670 250 ·3

1? 830 800 300 ·4

2 960 910 - ·5

2? 1080 1020 - ·6

3 1190 1120 - ·7

3? 1300 1220 - ·8

4 1400 1320 - ·9

4? 1500 1410 - ·9

5 1590 1500 - -

5? 1680 1590 - -

6 1760 1680 - -

BRASS HOWITZERS.

12-pounder Howitzer. Weight, 6·5cwt. Service Charge, 1?lb.

Elevation. Ranges.

Common Shell. Shrapnel. Case. Length of

fuse.

P.B. 200 - 100 -

0?° 310 - 150 -

1 420 400 200 ·3

1? 530 520 250 ·4

2 630 630 300 ·5

2? 715 725 ·6

3 800 820 ·7

3? 885 910 ·8

4 970 1000 Ricochet ·9

4? 1050 1090 1·0

5 1135 1180 Charge 6oz. el ·7°.600 1·1

5? 1220 1270 " 8oz. " ·6 .600 1·2

6 1290 1350 " 10oz. " ·6 .600 1·3

24-pounder Howitzer. Weight, 12·5cwt. Service Charge, 2?lb.

Elevation. Ranges.

Common Shell. Shrapnel. Case. Length of

fuse.

P.B. 270 - 100 -

0?° 390 - 150 -

1 520 - 200 ·3

1? 640 500 250 ·4

2 760 630 300 ·5

2? 860 870 ·6

3 960 980 ·7

3? 1060 1090 ·8

4 1160 1200 Ricochet ·9

4? 1260 1300 1·0

5 1350 1400 See Table B. 1·1

5? 1440 1500 1·2

6 1520 1600 1·3

Table B.

Ricochet. 24-pounder Howitzer. Ricochet. 24-pounder Howitzer.

Charge. Elevation. Pitch. Charge. Elevation. Pitch.

oz. deg. oz. deg.

6 7·5 400 12 5·25 -

9 4·38 - 14 5· -

8 9· 500 14 7·75 600

10 7·5 - 12 6·5 -

11 6· - 16 4·75 -

11? 7·5 - 12

Cartridges and wads for cannon.

Cartridges for either brass or iron guns are best made of some woollen material; trade serge or old blanketing answers very well for the purpose. Bags should be made a little less than the bore, and into these the charge of powder is to be poured. A piece of woollen thread, double worsted, or twine should now be used to close the end of the bag, after which it is to be passed two or three times round the bag, giving it at the same time a compact cylindrical form by rolling on a board or table under the hand. Passing the thread through the substance of the cartridge aids much in keeping its form and facilitates loading. A cartridge needle should be used to perform this operation. This needle can be easily made from a piece of stout copper or brass wire. Flatten out one end, drill or punch a hole in it to form the eye, and file the other end sharp for a point. Fourteen inches is a convenient length for a cartridge needle. It is said that a sailor's wife enabled a British vessel to continue a long and desperate fight by pillaging the officers' quarters of all the stockings she could find, and handing them up to be filled for cartridges. The intestines of animals, according to their size, would make as good cartridge cases as could be desired. Wads may be made of picked oakum twisted in a flat spiral to the proper size of the bore, when they are made to retain their shape by being secured here and there with fine twine passed through with the needle. In the absence of oakum, wooden wads may be made by first spokeshaving a stout pole to the size of the bore, and then sawing it up into convenient lengths.

Guns to unspike and repair.

Old guns which have been laid by will not uncommonly be found spiked, by having a common nail driven into the vent. If efficient tools are at hand this may be drilled out, if not, put a charge of powder in the gun, bore a gimlet hole in one of your wooden wads, through which pass a loosely-twisted string well impregnated with dissolved gunpowder, and afterwards dried. Cut the end of your prepared string just at the muzzle of the gun, light it, and get out of the way, when the explosion, which soon takes place, will not unfrequently expel the spike. A gun which has had its trunnions knocked off, with a view to rendering it useless, may be made nearly as effective as ever by cutting with the axe or adze a bed for it in a stout piece of log, of such a form that the cascabel of the gun and the breech end are rather more than half buried in solid wood. The log may now be trimmed off to convenient dimensions, and all made secure by a lashing of wet raw hide rope, which rests in a broad shallow notch cut in the log to receive it. The gun and its bed are thus, as the rope dries, held together by a material little less rigid than iron.

Priming cups, to make.

The bed log and gun may now be mounted by placing a very strong round bar of hard tough wood across the slide or carriage immediately below where the trunnions would have rested. This receives a deep semicircular notch, cut to exactly correspond with it on the under side of the bed log. The gun can now be elevated and depressed in the usual manner by placing wedges under the log. The common mode of priming a gun from a flask or horn, when there are no percussion or friction tubes to be obtained, is, to say the least of it, inconvenient and dangerous. It is far better to keep on hand a few priming cups. These are made as follows: From the joints of a bamboo cut a number of little cups, the bottoms being formed by the knots of the cane; in the centre of the bottom bore a hole, with a gimlet or red hot wire, large enough to admit a piece of marsh reed, hollow cane, weed stalk, or quill, about 3in. long, and small enough in diameter to pass down into the vent of the gun easily; stop the small end with a bit of melted sealing-wax; secure the large end in the cup by the same agency.

The cup becomes now a sort of funnel, through which common fine sporting powder should be poured until both tube and cup are full, when a piece of oiled paper is strained over the top of the cup like the head of a drum, and is tied fast with twine. When the gun is to be fired, the cartridge is pierced in the usual way with the priming wire. The tube of the priming cup is now to be inserted at the mouth of the vent, and pressed down until the bottom of the cup rests on the metal of the gun, when on the port fire or linstock being applied, the paper lid is instantly burned through, and the gun discharged. In windy weather, heavy tropical rains, or at night, these cups are extremely useful.

Makeshift firearms.

A cannon, of very tolerable efficiency for close quarters, and slug or bullet charges, may be made by boring a hole partly through a piece of tough strong log, with a pump auger; bore a vent with a gimlet, put on one or two hoops or rings of iron or raw hide, and the gun is ready for use. We have seen several of these, which were effectually used during the rebellion in Canada.

In 1838, at the siege of Herat, Mahomed Shah brought up a quantity of metal on the backs of camels, and had a heavy bronze gun cast, and completely finished before the town; and when the siege was raised the king had his gun sawn to pieces and taken to Teheran. Shah Abbas, of Ispahan, had a heavy piece of artillery, but said it would delay his march, and he would much rather carry metal on camels and cast artillery before the enemy's town.

During the Indian mutiny, the rebels pulled down the telegraph-posts which had iron tube sockets fitted to them in order to keep off the white ants. These sockets were taken off, and vents drilled in them. They were then loaded with powder, and charges of slugs made from doubled up and hammered pieces of the telegraph wire. We have seen a piece of common iron gas-pipe, a piece of wood, and a few bits of sheet copper, converted into a very formidable matchlock pistol.

In our Australian boat voyage we had a small 1lb. swivel carronade. We jammed a pole about 6ft. long into the fork of the swivel, and had we met any of the Malay trepang fishers, who go in companies of a hundred or more, we should have made the swivel-bolt fast to the bowsprit just outside the stem of our boat, and, letting the trail rest on the mast thwart, have defended ourselves with heavy charges of musket bullets. Of course the fishers might have been friendly, or, if not, the knowledge that we had a gun would have made them so, and we should not in any case have been the aggressors.

The Zemboureks, or dromedary artillery.

Light guns mounted on dromedaries or camels are valuable for the defence of caravans, &c. The Afghans first used these in an emergency against the Persians. A number of pivoted arquebuses were mounted on the saddles of dromedaries, which were taught to kneel while the pieces were fired from their backs. The Persians, profiting by the lessons of their defeat, also organised a similar force, the guns weighing not more than 75lb. The saddle was originally constructed of two-forked branches connected by wooden bars, and if the gun was slightly overloaded the recoil would injure the fittings, and disturb the animal; but subsequently the saddle was much improved, and wheels were added, so that it might be taken from the animal's back and used as a field gun. It will be seen that the staff of the bannerol carries a little tent, and this covers the ammunition bags. A skin of water hangs under the belly of the camel. The Persians have sought out with eagerness and perseverance the best form of artillery to be carried on the backs of animals; and, as it seems that dromedaries have been successfully imported into America and Australia, it may be of advantage to know that they are capable of being utilised in this way. Other animals, perhaps oxen, might be trained to carry smaller guns.

Very efficient common case shot can be made by filling empty preserved-meat tins with rifle or pistol balls. A bag of cooper's iron hoop rivets is a very favourite charge among the South-Sea whalers. Round shot can be made as directed under the head "Lead, and its Uses."

Grenades and rocket arrows.

Extempore grenades can be made from empty soda-water bottles or old ink jars. On one occasion we made a number from the latter vessels by filling them with a mixture of buck shot and strong sporting powder; stoppers of wood were then fitted by notching the upper ends, and fastening them down with wire, like the corks of champagne bottles, a gimlet hole was then bored in each, and a few inches of quick match put in. When the fuse has been lighted, these vessels are either hurled from the hand or fired from large powerful cross-bows, when they, by exploding in full flight or on the ground, cause no trifling confusion among an undisciplined enemy, a pack of wolves, or a sounder of hog in a cactus brake.

An unarmed merchantman was chased by a pirate galley; she hove to, and pretended to surrender, but two men stood at the gangway with a cask of powder. As soon as the long low open boat came alongside they threw it into her, and the cook, running out of the galley, threw a shovelful of hot coals after it. The ship forged ahead before the smoke had cleared away, and escaped, leaving the desperadoes to their fate.

Large arrows tipped with strong paper cases, such as are made for rockets, only choked at the bottom, become most formidable projectiles. The cases are partly filled with powder, a wad, with a hole in it, is rammed down on the charge, a quill is put in the hole, about thirty buck shot are deposited round the quill, which is filled with meal powder. The case and quill head are then capped with paper which has been soaked in dissolved gunpowder or nitre. Arrows thus made are to be fired from powerful hand-bows, after the match has been lighted. In the true rocket arrow the touchpaper is ignited just before the arrow is fixed in the bow, and it is shot just before the fire reaches the composition; the combustion then aids the flight rather than retards it. The head is strongly barbed, so that it may not easily be drawn from thatched roofs, &c.; the Chinese and Indian tribes often use these.

Gunpowder, to make.

It sometimes happens that the hunter or explorer has, like many members of the Algerian, Tartar, and Mongolian tribes, to turn gunpowder manufacturer. To make gunpowder three ingredients are requisite: viz., saltpetre (nitrate of potash), sulphur, and charcoal. The two former ingredients should form a part of the equipment of an expedition (see "Farrier's Stores," p. 84). Still, where such stores are not carried, sulphur and saltpetre are usually to be obtained, more or less pure, from the natives of all but the most unfrequented and isolated countries. The saltpetre will require recrystallisation, which is carried out as follows: Take equal quantities, by measure, of the saltpetre and boiling water, stir them well about with a stick until all the lumps are thoroughly dissolved; strain the resulting fluid through a coarse cloth in order to get rid of sticks, chips, and stones, and set it aside to crystallise; when the process is complete drain the water from the crystals, set them to dry on a skin or a cloth. The sulphur, if in lumps as imported, will require purification by melting. This operation must be conducted over a very slow fire, and immediately the mass becomes liquid in the pot it should be put to stand for a few minutes in hot wood ashes in order that impurities may settle to the bottom. The neck of the vessel may then be held fast in a twisted stick, and the contents poured dexterously out into a convenient mould until the sediment at the bottom, which is useless, is left. Flour of sulphur will not require this treatment. The charcoal (see "Charcoal Burning," p. 267) should, for gunpowder making, be prepared from some light, clean-grained wood. In this country willow, withy, alder, hazel, linden, &c., are held in high esteem for the purpose; but in wild countries the nearest approach to these within reach should be obtained. The three ingredients must be first separately ground, either in a native quern or stone handmill, between two conveniently-formed stones, or in an extempore pestle and mortar, until reduced to perfect powder, quite free from lumps or grit. The three powders are to be now weighed out carefully in the following proportions: One part sulphur, one part charcoal, and six parts saltpetre. Mix these on a skin pegged out on the ground, and rub the mixture together with the palms of the hands until most intimately and thoroughly blended; then, with an empty percussion-cap box or drinking cup, measure your mixture, and for every ten cups or boxes of powder put down a stone or make a mark, and for every mark put aside a cup full of warm water, so that you have just one-tenth of fluid. This you sprinkle with a bunch of feathers or grass, a little at a time, on the powders, until, by constant and persistent working and kneading, a smooth homogeneous paste is formed. Two well-selected stones much facilitate this stage of the process; one should be large and flat, the other water-rounded and oval; in fact, a water-worn pebble of about 2lb. weight. By sitting on the stretched skin with the flat stone between the legs, the water and sprinkler at the side, and the pebble between the hands, the paste can be effectually worked up; and it is well to bear in mind that on the perfect homogeneity of this paste depends, in great measure, the quality of the gunpowder. The paste-or devil as it is sometimes called-being thoroughly elaborated, make square flat cakes of it 6in. square and 2in. thick, and wrap them compactly up in cotton cloth or old sheeting four or five times doubled; then stitch up a stout hide bag just large enough to contain all your cakes and their coverings when built in compactly one on the other, and sew up the opening; then, with a chisel, scoop out a cavity in the end of a log just deep enough to half bury your case of cakes; then, with the aid of a neighbouring tree, and a few suitable pieces of wood, which are easily fashioned with the axe, prepare such a press as is shown in the above illustration. The weight should be increased gradually, and the pressure intensified until the cakes are pressed into compact masses. The coverings are now to be removed, and then the process of coming begins, and the help of a corning sieve is required. This is made as follows: Make a wide stout hoop of any pliant wood, and over one of its edges stretch a head of parchment, like that of a banjo, nail or lace it on wet, and when dry it will become perfectly tight, like the head of a tambourine. Now, take a very small-sized key, file off the wards and bow, sharpen the lower edges round the tube with the file until it is converted into a sharp hollow punch. Turn your tambourine upside down on a smooth-faced log of suitable size, and, with a small hammer and your little punch, proceed to perforate the parchment until the head is covered with small round holes. Now fashion from any dry, hard, heavy wood a flat disc 1?in. thick and 4?in. in diameter; this, with the broken cake, is put in the sieve and rattled about forward and back until the small broken granular fragments are in numbers forced through the holes in the parchment, and fall on the skin stretched to receive them. It will be found that among the grains thus formed there will be a certain quantity of fine dust; this can be separated by sweeping the grains over a sloping board on which flannel has been stretched, the grains pass on, the dust remains amongst the fibres of the wool, and can be collected to work up again. The granules can now be placed in a little wooden box and shaken about until rubbed smooth against each other. To finish them off it is well to place a large sheet of iron, copper, tin, or any other metal over a pot of boiling-hot water, throw the now all-but-finished gunpowder on the plate and stir it about until completely dry. A clean frying-pan is by no means a bad instrument for powder drying; take care that it is only placed on hot water, and not subjected to fire heat, or a blow-up will probably follow. Too much caution cannot be used after the powder has been subjected to the granulating process; before that there is little to fear, after it a great deal.

SEARCHING FOR GOLD.

Geology for travellers.

Metals, to identify.

Hints to gold searchers.

In travelling through little known or comparatively undescribed countries, it will be well for the experienced traveller to closely investigate and carefully study the geology of the region he is passing through; outcropping rocks and the stones of the river beds should be closely investigated. Sand should be gathered on the borders of the deep pools, dried, spread out on paper, and examined under the lens. Thus will the formation of inaccessible mountain regions be often brought to light. The winter ices and spring floods, by breaking up and disintegrating the rocks they flow through, gradually, by friction and the grinding power of water-moved boulders, reduce the detritus which accompanies them to sand, more or less ponderous according to the metallic elements of which it is formed. Thus, by the breaking up of quartz veins by the agencies just referred to, gold is released from its matrix to enrich the sands and shingle beds of certain rivers. Alluvial tin is in the same way set free in grains and nodules from the granitic or other formations in which it resides, and, water borne, travels onward until arrested by some deep pit or crevice in the river bed, where it remains until disturbed by floods of more than ordinary magnitude, or the pick and shovel of the miner. Our space will not admit of our dealing at length with the indications of gold or other metals, or of the regions in which the precious metals and gems are to be sought. We shall, therefore, content ourselves by giving a few plain, and we trust practical, hints for the finding and identification of such metals, stones, &c., as the traveller is likely to meet with. First in importance we class gold; and, although precarious and uncertain in the bulk of its deposits, is more generally distributed throughout the earth's surface than any other metal. Clay slate formations, traversed by iron-stained quartz dykes, are well worth investigating; and most of the streams which flow through such formations will be found, on careful examination, more or less auriferous. In prospecting a stream, or river bed, choose localities where the stream, after a sharp descending run, has impinged against a perpendicular bank, forming an eddy before flowing onward. Dig away boldly all the top deposit until the bed rock is reached. Rout out all the depressions, crevices, and holes in this, scooping up all the clay, gravel, and grit they may contain. Place all this in convenient quantities in a broad shallow metal pan or dish, add water to it, rub it about briskly with the hand, pour away all the dirty water, add more, shake it about, give a sweeping rotatory motion to your pan, pick out all large lumps of stone or quartz, giving a sharp look at the latter; still add water, and work the pan until nothing but fine clear sand remains in it. A dexterous rolling, tilting motion is given by the initiated, which at once clears away the baser fragments, and reveals the "colour," as the gold dust is called by the miners. A broad shovel is at times used somewhat in the same manner, the handle being held as shown in the full-page illustration "Searching for Gold," when the process is called vanning.

Mining and miners' tools.

To carry out a regular system of investigation among quartz reefs, mineral veins, and metalliferous rocks, certain tools and appliances will be needed-picks of Cornish pattern, such as is represented in the above illustration, sets of steel borers, with cockscomb ends, sets of steel gads or wedges, borer, steel and gad steel in bars, blasting powder, safety match in coils, some heavy hammers, a portable forge (such as is here represented), set of smith's tools, shovel blades, spare pick-heads, and hilts of ash, &c. When it is deemed requisite to blast a portion of rock, the borer and hammer are used much as shown in the annexed illustration. One man, sitting on the ground, holds the borer upright and turns it freely round, whilst his assistant strikes it with the hammer. A little water dropped from time to time down the hole keeps the bit cool, and facilitates the operation. As sludge collects, it is removed with a species of scraper, fashioned from the end of an iron bar. A small rod or stick, with its end fibres frayed and set up like a mop, is used for drying out the hole. Should it be in wet ground, where moisture remains in spite of swabbing out, a cartridge composed of tallowed cotton or oiled paper, may be used to inclose the powder in. According to the old-fashioned plan, which some miners still follow, a long pointed copper rod or needle was pressed into the charge after it had been rammed into the bottom of the hole. Round this rod clay, pulverised clay, slate, &c., was closely packed, and driven with a copper tamping rod until the hole was compactly filled up. The needle was now withdrawn, and a match, composed of a long marsh reed filled with mealed powder, thrust down the orifice until the charge was reached, when the upper end was held in its place by clay. A bit of rag, smeared with moistened powder, was attached to the head of the reed, which, when fired, burned long enough to afford time for the miners to shelter themselves from the effects of the explosion. Since the introduction of the so-called patent safety match, it has been with great advantage substituted for the reed; the burning of this match or fuse is generally so uniform, that it has only to be cut according to the distance between the hole and the place of shelter. Even this great improvement in the means of ignition falls very short of exploding by voltaic electricity, which should always, when practicable, be had recourse to. The wandering miner and explorer will, however, seldom be able to avail himself of its valuable aid, or the use of gun cotton or nitrate of glycerine, which agents have of late been much lauded as substitutes for gunpowder in mining operations.

It not unfrequently happens that diamonds and other precious stones are found in river beds, and such other localities as miners are in the habit of examining. We therefore offer a few hints and directions for the identification of these in their rough state, as given by Professor Tennant:

Precious stones, to identify.

"Fig. 1 is an octahedron; Fig. 2 an octahedron having six planes on the edges; Fig. 3, dodecahedron with rhombic faces; Figs. 4, 5, and 6 are rarer forms. Out of 1000 diamonds I have generally found about one of the form of Fig. 6; about ten like Fig. 5; fifty like Fig. 4; and the remainder like 1, 2, 3, in about an equal proportion. With regard to the size and weight of diamonds, 500 out of 1000 which came in the same parcel were found smaller than Fig. 1, which is the exact size of a diamond weighing half a carat; 300 were of the size 3, 4, 5, and 6-none of these exceeded a carat in weight; eighty of the size 2 weighed a carat and a half; only one was as large as Fig. 16-this weighed 24 carats. The remainder varied from 2 to 20 carats, a carat being equal to three grains and one-sixth troy. Fig. 7 consists of a conglomerated mass of quartz pebbles rounded through having been water-worn, a crystal of diamond, the size of a small pea, and various grains of gold, the whole cemented together by oxide of iron. This specimen is peculiarly interesting at the present time, as showing the association of diamonds with gold. In 1844 a slave was searching for gold in the bed of a river in the province of Bahia, and discovered diamonds. It being a new locality for diamonds, 297,000 carats were collected in two years, which produced upwards of 300,000l. I see no reason why diamonds should not be found in Australia, Canada, California, as well as in those other gold districts from which they have hitherto been obtained. The value of the most inferior diamonds, unfit for jewellery, is 50l. per ounce. Could they be found in sufficient abundance to be sold at 5l. per ounce, the benefit to the arts would be incalculable. Not only would the seal engraver, watchmaker, lapidary, glazier, &c., be able to procure them at easier prices, but numerous substances would be rendered useful which at present cannot be profitably worked owing to the high price of diamonds.

"Figs. 8 to 11 represent four crystals of corundum. This substance is commonly found in six-sided prismatic crystals, and frequently terminated at each end by six-sided pyramids. When transparent, and of a blue colour, it is known in jewellery as the sapphire; when merely of a red colour, it is called Oriental ruby; and when this colour is of a rich depth, the stone is more valuable than even the diamond.

"Figs. 12 to 14. Three crystals of spinel-ruby. It is of various shades of red, and is easily distinguished from corundum by the peculiarity of its crystalline form and inferior hardness.

"Figs. 15 and 16. Crystals of garnet. These are chiefly found in the form of the rhombic dodecahedron; are occasionally of a beautiful red colour; when semi-transparent, are called by the jewellers "carbuncles." They are of comparatively little value.

"Figs. 17 and 18. Two rhombic prisms of topaz. It is found in rivers, frequently with all the edges and angles of the original crystal worn off, and presenting a round appearance, in which state it is often mistaken for the diamond, owing to the colour and specific gravity of each being the same. It may, however, easily be distinguished from it by the difference of the hardness and fracture. The diamond yields readily to mechanical division parallel to all the planes of the regular octahedron, the topaz only at right angles to the axis of the crystal.

"Fig. 20. Tourmaline. A crystal having six sides, deeply striated in the longitudinal direction, and terminated by a three-sided pyramid; colour varying from black to brown and green. Transparent specimens are useful to the philosopher in experiments on polarised light.

"Fig. 21. Crystal of transparent quartz or "rock crystal," frequently called a "diamond" in the mining districts, as "Bristol diamond," a "Cornish diamond," &c. The crystal represented by this figure was brought from California by a person who refused 200l. for it, under the impression that it was a real diamond, because it scratched glass and could not be scratched with a file. Its real value, however, is not more than 2s. 6d.

"Fig. 22. Beryl, presents a six-sided prism, and is usually of a green colour."

River pearls, to find.

When substances are found which are supposed to be precious stones, the file test should be at once applied; if the teeth of the instrument "bite," as it is called, or cut into the substance, it will be at once fair to infer that some inferior mineral has been discovered. The bit of sapphire from the case may also be called into use, and if the stone you have found is of white colour, and a corner of your sapphire bites or scratches it, there is no hope of its being a diamond. If on weighing it the specific gravity of the specimen is found to be less than 3·9, it will not turn out to be a ruby or sapphire. The application of heat is another test, as if no electricity is manifested it will not turn out to be a gargoon or a topaz. If, on testing it on your piece of flint glass, the surface of that is bitten by the specimen, it will probably be found to be either rock crystal, quartz, or perchance beryl. The rivers of many countries, our own amongst the number, not unfrequently contain large mussel-like shells; these are the fresh-water pearl mussels (Unio margaritiferus), and the pearls which these at times contain are of considerable value, and well repay being looked for when the rivers are low.

"All is not gold that glitters." Sulphuret of iron and yellow mica are not unfrequently mistaken by the inexperienced for gold, and we have not unfrequently had some little difficulty in convincing the sanguine discoverer of his error. Sulphuret of iron, pyrites, or the mundic of the miners, is a bright yellow glittering mineral, which sometimes has gold associated with it. The differences between it and gold are sufficiently marked. Strike the suspected fragment on a hard substance with a hammer, and if "mundic," it at once becomes reduced to minute fragments, whilst gold would be only slightly flattened. Gold is malleable; mundic is not. Gold can be cut with the pocket-knife just as easily as copper; mundic resists the knife, turns its edge, and will strike fire against its back, giving out sulphurous fumes. Mundic, after being made red hot, is attracted by the magnet; gold never is. Hot nitric acid causes it to decompose with much effervescence, leaving such spangles of gold as it may contain free in the bottom of the test tube. Gold dust is readily taken up by quicksilver; mundic is not. Yellow mica is so much lighter than gold that its comparative want of ponderability should at once distinguish it; a small portion placed on an iron bar, and heated in the fire to redness becomes, on cooling, flakey and lustreless, whilst gold would remain unaltered; it floats on the surface of mercury, refusing to unite with it, whilst gold is immediately converted into an amalgam. Sulphuret of copper, or copper ore as it is usually called, breaks freely under the hammer, but can be cut easily with the knife, only instead of producing a solid metallic chip it crumbles into powder, just as soft stone or chalk would. Alluvial tin can in no case be mistaken for either gold, silver, or copper. It is dark coloured, breaks into powder under the hammer, and is exceedingly ponderous. With the so-called rosin and wood tin we cannot deal here, as the explorer is not very likely to find them. Minute fragments of stream tin are to be easily distinguished from small bits of iron ore by first heating them red hot, and then subjecting them to the magnet; iron will be attracted, tin will not.

Iron ore, to smelt.

Many wild countries produce iron ore of remarkable purity, and a number of native tribes, by a rough system of smelting, contrive to obtain enough metal for the manufacture of their weapons, implements, &c. The greater the purity of the metal, the less difficulty will be experienced in dealing with it. Should the explorer at any time be called on to smelt a little iron ore, he may proceed as follows: Build a turret-shaped furnace, proportioned to the quantity of ore to be treated, line it with ant-hill clay, or common clay and sand, leaving a hole in the front near the bottom, which has a temporary stopper of clay placed in it, and another orifice about 2ft. up the back for the air blast to enter at. Either a large pair of double bellows, compressible skin air-bags, such as we have before described, or blowing cylinders, such as are represented in the annexed illustration, must be set up at a convenient distance from the back of the furnace. These cylinders are used by the inhabitants of New Guinea instead of bellows, and answer remarkably well. They are composed of two hollow tree trunks, placed side by side; a wooden tube, which serves to let the air out, unites them; and a man or boy sits on the tops of the tubes, and works alternately up and down a couple of mop-shaped pistons, which are made from poles armed at the ends with bundles of fibre, feathers, or dry grass, so adjusted that they expand on being thrust down and collapse on being drawn up. As one piston man gets fatigued, another takes his place; thus a continuous stream of air is kept up. Whatever method of blast is decided on, it must be so arranged as to be continuous and powerful. When the interior of the furnace is quite dry, throw in a good quantity of well-burned charcoal; then a layer of split dry wood until it reaches about 1ft. above the entrance of the blast; then another layer of charcoal and dry cow dung a few inches deep; then sprinkle in loosely a layer of broken iron ore, mixed with a little limestone if you can get it; then another layer of charcoal and dry cow dung, and another of ore; and so on until the furnace is all but full, only one layer of wood being used. Now through the blast entrance introduce some well-ignited and glowing embers from your fire; put in the tube of your blast, which may be of baked clay; lute it fast in its place, so as to prevent any escape of air; and proceed to blow, when your furnace will soon be in a state of active ignition and glow. Keep up the blast steadily, and as the contents of the furnace sink down add to them from above layer by layer as before directed, until it is considered that enough metal has been cast in. So soon as it is thought probable that the iron has melted, a small portion of the clay of the tap-hole may be removed with an iron bar, when, if in a sufficiently fluxed condition, the iron will run freely out into long shallow pits dug to receive it. The iron thus procured is called bloom, and has to be heated in pieces in the forge fire, and thoroughly roasted and thumped about until it is soft and tough enough for general use. The natives do not as a rule wait for their iron to flow, but open the furnace when it cools down, and then drag out such bloom as may have settled to the bottom. Excellent steel is made from iron thus procured by the natives of the hill districts of India, by putting it in small earthen crucibles with charcoal, rice, chaff, peroxide of manganese, and green leaves. These pots are then luted down with clay, and placed in a clay furnace heated with dry cow dung and charcoal. Here they remain for a considerable time, when the fire is allowed to burn out; the pots are then, when cool, removed, and the steel taken out to be fashioned by the hand of the smith into any form required. We have used a great deal of both iron and steel prepared as above described, and found both of admirable quality.

Chemical tests for minerals.

A common horse-shoe magnet, such as can be bought for a mere trifle at any toyshop, will be found very useful for extracting particles of iron from other mineral. Whenever the means of transport will admit, it is well to take a small compact case of simple appliances, tests, and reagents. The whole, by a little ingenuity, may be easily packed in a solid leather case very little larger than an ordinary sandwich box. Its contents should be as follows: Small glass-stoppered and capped bottle of nitric acid, ditto hydrochloric acid, ditto liq. ammonia, ditto quicksilver, small corked bottles of ferrocyanide of potassium, bi-chromate of potash, fused borax, and common salt; a small jointed blowpipe, a pair of forceps, a small pair of scales, fitted for taking specific gravities, and a set of weights, a bit of flint glass, a piece of sapphire, which can be obtained from any lapidary; half a dozen test tubes to nest one within the other; half a dozen old watch glasses, to be obtained for a few pence from any watchmaker; half a dozen narrow strips of window glass, cut to a thickness little greater than stout wire, and 5in. long (these are for stirring up hot acids, &c.); a piece of stout copper wire, shaped like the figure 9, to hold the watch glasses on whilst they are over the lamp or candle flame; a small fine file and a few narrow slips of well burnt light charcoal; a common wire cigar-holder, to hold the test tubes in whilst heated; and a very small bright-faced hammer, such as watchmakers use. It is truly astonishing how much qualitative analysis can be carried out with these comparatively limited means. We will suppose that a little bag of sand has been obtained; that it shows, on being spread out, a number of particles of a glittering yellow substance, as well as black-coloured grains, mixed with common quartz and minute fragments of stone. We first place our sand on a sheet of white paper, and with our pocket lens have a thorough examination of the various constituents. Should any grains of sufficient size and questionable character present themselves, they may be at once taken up on the moistened point of a pin. If one of them should look like gold, place it on some hard substance and give it a blow with your hammer. If it flattens without powdering, drop it into one of your test tubes, pour in a little nitric acid, and hold it in the flame until it boils thoroughly. If your particle gives off a train of minute bubbles and gradually dissolves, pour a little of the contents of your tube into two separate watch glasses placed side by side, add a little water to each. Add a little common salt to No. 1; if the particle is silver, you will at once have a thick white precipitate-chloride of silver. Drop a few drops of your liquor ammonia into No. 2; and if copper, the beautiful and well-marked blue colour of ammonuret of copper will at once appear. Should the particle have crushed under the blow, it is probably either sulphuret of iron or copper ore. To distinguish these two substances when in a minute state of division, proceed with the acid as just described, and test one watch glass with a small fragment of ferrocyanide of potassium, when, if sulphuret of iron or "mundic," you will have a dense cloud of Prussian blue in your watch glass. Treat the other with your liquor ammonia, and you will have the same brilliant ammonuret of copper colour as if the particle had been native or malleable copper. Having satisfied ourselves as to the selected particles-for should the flattened grain resist the action of the hot acid and remain bright, it is surely gold-we place our sand on a shovel, and hold it there until the whole is red hot; it may then be taken from the fire, and allowed to cool on the shovel. The magnet will now take out all the bits of iron. Now with a hammer-face or smooth water-worn pebble proceed to crush all the substances on the shovel fine. Then at the nearest stream of water, or in a large tub, carefully van and wash your sample until all the earthy and worthless matters have been washed away; then the practised eye will instantly distinguish the gold, if any. The utterly inexperienced may, however, be deceived by remaining fragments of mundic or copper ore before referred to; therefore, to make assurance doubly sure, let him dry his washed metal powder on the shovel over the fire, then carefully place it in a small, clean, dry vial-bottle with a little quicksilver. Shake and rattle it well about until all the particles have been brought well in contact with the mercury. Such fragments as it will not take up are not gold; but to find that which it has converted into an amalgam, place the mercury in a piece of clean chamois leather, press it carefully, and the mercury will force its way in minute globules through the leather, leaving the gold in a soft mass within. This, by being heated to redness, throws off the remaining quicksilver, and can be estimated as gold. Silver will also amalgamate with mercury, but can always be distinguished from gold by the nitric acid and salt test before described. Lead ore is rarely mistaken for anything else, its peculiar colour, cubical form of crystallisation, and gravity being generally sufficient to identify it. A small quantity, reduced to a fine powder and mixed with a little fused borax, readily fuses on a charcoal slip before the blowpipe, and is then ordinary lead. The silver often associated with lead ores can alone be estimated by a regular assay, requiring the use of crucibles, cupels, furnace, &c. Sulphuret of antimony, although massive and somewhat lead-coloured, leaves a thick rough deposit on the charcoal, and fuses into a brittle crystalline regulus, in no way resembling lead. Small specimens of galena, or lead ore, should always be preserved for future investigation, as it is at times extremely rich in silver, whilst at others a mere trace only remains. We have analysed lead ore from Cornwall which yielded between 90oz. and 100oz. of silver to the ton, whilst other samples, raised in Wisconsin, although yielding 85 per cent. of lead, did not contain enough silver to render its extraction remunerative. The points of distinction between minerals and metals we have thus been briefly laying down do not properly apply to the investigations of the regular gold-digger, but are mainly intended for the use of those who are engaged in exploration and research. The professed gold-seeker, as a rule, casts all aside save the one great centre of his hopes and pursuit. He, in his prospecting expeditions, makes use of the broad shallow metal pan shown in the illustration which represents "Searching for Gold." The quantity of gold brought to light by its aid guides him in his choice of a locality. If it is considered rich enough, he, with his mates, sinks down to "the pay dirt," or deposit containing the gold; this is either washed out at once on the cradle, or piled in heaps for future treatment. With gold quartz-crushing, amalgamation on a large scale, or the washing down of drift by hydraulic power and the use of flumes as practised in California, we cannot deal here, as the appliances are far more complicated and ponderous than the mere traveller could carry with him.

Base metal, to detect.

It sometimes happens that imposition is attempted in far-off lands, and imitation gold ornaments offered to the traveller. To test the quality of these, it will be requisite to have a bit of black terra-cotta pot, or a fragment of any hard smooth black stone. Rub the suspected ornament on this until a metallic streak is left, dip one of your bits of glass rod in your nitric acid, and let a drop or two fall on the track left by the metal. If of base material, the particles will rapidly turn green and dissolve; if gold, they will remain unchanged; and if an alloy, the combined metal will be removed, and the gold wall remain stationary on the black surface. The exact standard of mixture or combination can only be arrived at by the use of a set of touch-needles, which are rubbed and compared with the doubtful marks on the stone.

Stone, to quarry.

There are many situations in which stone may be advantageously used for the erection of houses, forts, or defensible dep?ts. On the discovery of a bed of rock adapted for the purpose, the head or covering earth should be removed, either by the agency of water obtained by diverting some neighbouring stream for the purpose, or by digging with the spade or shovel. Careful examination will now generally disclose veins or seams traversing the stone, such of these as run in favourable directions should be selected, and the gads or wedges before described had recourse to. It is well to have, at least, a dozen of these for stone splitting. They should be about 5in. long, 1?in. wide, and ?in. thick, tapering to the edge, which should not be too sharp. All gads should be made of the best gad steel, carefully pointed and tempered. In entering the gads, it will be well to insert them in the selected seam at about 1ft. apart; then, with the heavy hammer or pick-head, strike each gad a blow or two in succession, which will serve to open the seam, and not unfrequently detach the required fragment. When large square or oblong blocks are required, it is well to first mark out the size required on the rock with the pick's point, and then with either the borer before described, or a jumping bar (of form shown in the annexed illustration), drill a row of holes about 8in. apart on the line before marked out, in depth proportioned to the intended thickness of the stone, in each hole should be placed a pair of gad cheeks-these are pieces of half-round iron bar. The rounded sides rest against the sides of the holes as the gad is driven between the flat surfaces, thus forcing open the grain of the rock without breaking away the sides of the holes by gad clinching. As in the former case, each gad is gradually driven home until the line of holes run into one long fissure and the block is detached. In breaking out flat slabs of comparatively thin stone, it will be found a good plan, after measuring and marking the size decided on, to sink a shallow groove either with the pick's point or a stonecutter's chisel across the extreme length of the slab; then, by inserting the gads at the outer face or edge of the deposit, the slab will not only be raised but evenly broken off. Fire is a most powerful agent and aid in stone-breaking, especially when assisted by water. The huge and massive boulder of rock which bids defiance to the sledge-hammer may very soon be reduced to fragments by making a strong fire round it, and, when thoroughly heated, throwing buckets of water over it.

The treatment of stone.

Some Indians are particularly clever in the art of stone dividing. They build a double wall of clay the whole length of the stone, leaving about six inches of bare rock between them. They then lay more clay on the outsides of the walls, nearly the width of the stone. Then between the walls of clay they make a long line of fire with dry cow dung and chips of hard, dry wood. An incredibly short space of time elapses before the division of the stone is completed, when the fire is carefully extinguished with earth or sand, and the stone allowed to cool. Rocks, so placed as to prevent recourse being had to either of the expedients described, may be split out by the action of a small charge of powder, fired, as before directed, in a hole made by the jumping bar. To drill a hole with this no hammer man is required, but the weight of the protuberance on the instrument, when aided by a jumping and rotatory motion, is sufficient to cut away the rock. Water swab, shell scraper, &c., are used with these implements, just as they are with the miner's borer, which can be used in confined spaces and under outlying works, where the jumper would be useless. A crowbar or two will be found very useful for lifting out broken pieces of stone, &c. There is also an instrument much used in America called a "canthook," which is here represented. It is extremely valuable for moving both stones of large size and logs of unwieldy dimensions. The handle, or lever, is made of tough, well-seasoned timber, and is usually from 6ft. to 7ft. long. The claw is of sound, tough, wrought iron, and proportioned in weight and spread to the bodies it is applied to. Two or three sizes of claws fit one handle, just as a dentist's key is adapted to the size of the tooth it is to grasp. An oblong square hole is cut through the lever for the claw's end to pass through, and a stout iron pin, with a hole in the end for a split stop to go into, keeps the claw at its proper point of adjustment. The boulder claw is another most useful implement. It is used for turning over and rolling out large boulders of rock, lifting out logs, &c. These claws, and the chains and rings to which they are attached, should be made of the best Swedish iron; the claw point should be of gad steel, welded in. The form of the hook or claw is very important, as, if not turned to the exact bend, it will not grip or hold. The above illustrations will serve to show both the form of the claw and its mode of action when in use.

THE BOULDER CLAW.

Miners' pump, to make.

When water settles in a comparatively shallow pit, too large to be conveniently emptied by the aid of buckets, a very simple form of pump will be found useful. Nail four long planks together in the form of a narrow square box or tube, say 1ft. square; now procure a stout pole a little longer than the box, nail a flat board to one end of it just as a table is attached to its stand, cut away the edges until it fits the box loosely, then nail a bordering of old boot leather or hide round the edges until it fits tight enough to suck; cut a large square hole in it, and fasten over this with tacks a piece of tapping leather or raw hide backed with wood for a valve; bore a hole in the upper end of the pole to put a cross handle through; bore an auger hole through the lower end of your box about 1ft. from the opening, and through this drive a stout stick to keep the sucker from coming too far down; your pump is now complete. Place it in a slightly slanting direction in the pond, and secure it with a crooked stick driven in by its side; push the sucker to the bottom, pour a bucket of water or so in to make it draw, and you will, by working the piston steadily up and down, soon have the water pouring in a flood over the upper edge of the box, where it can be caught in a hollow log or a pit lined with clay. One of these box pumps is shown in the full page illustration "Searching for Gold."

Charcoal burning.

The traveller will find it extremely useful to be able to manufacture his own charcoal. There are several methods by which he can do this, all depending on the same general principles. Pieces of wood of suitable length and convenient size are prepared. We show here the most effective arrangements.

The pile, when evenly and completely built up, is covered with turf and a little sand or earth-leaving one fair-sized orifice as a draught hole. Fire is introduced either at the bottom of the pile through a hole left for it, or dropped down through the space left by the withdrawal of the centre post. The orifices of all charcoal pits or chambers should remain open until the fire has become well distributed through the mass of wood, but should be covered with a stopper of turf or clay directly the light grey smoke of active combustion shows itself. The contents of the pile may from time to time be tested by removing a small portion of the stopping or covering turf and inserting a hooked iron rod, by the aid of which a sample of the baking may be withdrawn for examination. Immediately on being satisfied that the charcoal has been sufficiently burned, more earth, turf, sand, &c., should be heaped on the top of the pile, until every crevice is stopped completely. The fire will then soon die out, and the contents of the pile can be removed. We also represent a contrivance for preparing charcoal for gunpowder making. A small cask has one head removed, a stout pole run through the bung-hole, and is then evenly packed with selected billets of light suitable wood. (See "Gunpowder, to make," p. 247.) The head is then replaced, the cask covered with well-worked clay, and then sunk in a pit prepared for its reception. The pole is then withdrawn, and a good quantity of red-hot embers thrown down the hole. The cask, after being used for charcoal making, is very useful for an oven, as will be shown when cookery is under consideration.

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