Chapter 5 ANIMAL LIFE

A common ground to zoologists and geographers in the exploration of which they derive mutual pleasure from assisting each other, is the geographical distribution of animals. In this connection the fauna of North America presents perhaps even more interesting problems than does its flora.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

In the study of the distribution of animals over a continent, the discovery of the laws determining the intangible boundaries which the members of a species may not pass is even more difficult than the similar task in the case of plants. Plant species for the most part advance and retreat slowly as conditions change, and, with minor exceptions, there is no freedom of movement for the individual; but animals, and especially the higher forms, are sensitive to even slight changes in their environment, and there is more or less individual freedom to travel over the land, to fly through the air, or to swim through the water. Why the members of a given species which have apparently unlimited power to travel should be confined to a certain and frequently a narrowly circumscribed area has excited the curiosity of man for many centuries.

A point is gained in reference to the distribution of animal species when it is remembered that animals are either directly or indirectly dependent on plants for food, and it follows that if plants, as we have seen, are so largely controlled in their distribution by climate, the secret of the distribution of animals is to be sought in the same direction. When a thoroughly satisfactory classification of climatic provinces is arrived at, it will no doubt be found to agree with the larger features of plant distribution, and should coincide, although perhaps less definitely, with the major divisions into which the zoologist partitions the earth's surface. This principle has been recognised by C. Hart Merriam in subdividing the United States into "life-zones and crop-zones," and in the following pages his view will be discernible, although losing much of their clearness by reflection.

The Place of North America in the Life Realms of the Earth.-The geological distribution of animals has been critically studied by P. L. Sclater, A. R. Wallace, T. H. Huxley, and others, and the entire land area of the earth subdivided into realms, regions, etc., in such a manner as to indicate the present grouping of animals. One of the latest of these broad views of the life of the earth is presented by Richard Lydekker, who, from the evidence furnished by both living and extinct mammals, has divided the world into three great "realms," two of which are again subdivided into "regions," as follows:

Notog?ic realm. 1. Australian region.

2. Polynesian region.

3. Hawaiian region.

4. Austro-Malayan region.

Neog?ic realm. Neotropical region.

Arctog?ic realm. 1. Malagasy region.

2. Ethiopian region.

3. Oriental region.

4. Holarctic region.

5. Sonoran region.

In this classification, North America falls in part in two realms, the Arctog?ic and Neog?ic, the former embracing the table-land of north-central Mexico and all of that portion of the continent lying to the northward, while the lowland of Mexico, together with Central America and the West Indies, falls in the latter realm. The Arctog?ic includes also nearly the whole of the eastern hemisphere. The relationship expressed in this classification of both the living and extinct mammalia of North America to that of Eurasia, is supposed to be due to a former land connection between the Old and the New World at Bering Strait, and is most clearly marked by northern species, the intercontinental bridge being too far north to be available for southern forms. The mammals and many of the other animals of the low, hot borders of Mexico and of Central America are a northward extension of the fauna of South America-that continent constituting nearly the entire Neog?ic realm. The mammals of the West Indies are few in species, and have their nearest relationship with the fauna of the continent to the southward.

LIFE-REGIONS AND LIFE-ZONES

The detailed study of the zoology of North America is far from complete, but the voluminous results reached have led to several attempts at broad generalization in reference to geographical distribution. Important and highly instructive memoirs have been presented in this connection by J. A. Allen, Angelo Heilprin, E. D. Cope, and others, who have in the main attempted to correlate the distribution of animal species, but principally the mammals, with variations in mean annual temperature. Among the latest of these contributions, and marking the advance made at the close of the nineteenth century, is the classification proposed by C. Hart Merriam, already referred to in the sketches that have been given of the climate and of the flora of the continent. The basis for this classification is the seemingly well-determined law that the northward distribution of terrestrial animals and plants is controlled by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction, and that the southward distribution is governed by the mean temperature of a brief period during the hotter portion of the year. By "positive temperatures" is meant the sum of the mean daily temperature above that which determines the period of physiological activity in plants and of reproductive activity in animals, assumed to be 6° C. or 43° F. The exact length of the period to be taken as the hottest portion of the year has not been definitely determined, but must be short enough to fall within the hottest part of the summer in high northern latitudes, and probably increases in length from north to south; the time assumed is the six hottest consecutive weeks of the year.

On the basis just stated, Merriam has divided North America into the following life-regions and life-zones:

Realms of Lydekker. Regions. Zones. Governing Temperatures.

NORTHERN LIMIT. SOUTHERN LIMIT.

Sum of normal mean daily temperatures above 6° C. or 43° F. Normal mean temperature of the six hottest consecutive weeks.

Deg. C. Deg. F. Deg. C. Deg. F.

Arctog?ic. Boreal. Arctic. ... ... 10[3] 50[3]

Hudsonian. ... ... 14[3] 57.2[3]

Canadian. ... ... 18 64.4

Austral. Transition. 5,500 10,000 22 71.6

Upper austral. 6,400 11,500 26 78.8

Lower austral. 10,000 18,000 ... ...

Neog?ic. Tropical. (At present unclassified.) 14,500 26,000 ... ...

[3]Estimated from insufficient data.

The boundaries of the regions and zones given in the above table are shown on the map facing page 173, but for detailed information concerning the basis of the classification the reader is referred to the monographs by Merriam mentioned at the end of this chapter. In the publications referred to lists are presented of the resident mammals and birds characteristic of each region and of its subdivisions to the north of Mexico. While the boundaries shown on the accompanying map can be recognised in nature by the naturalist and serve a useful purpose, to the unskilled observer each region would appear to blend with its neighbours by intangible gradations. In fact, in this, as in the case of so many other similar instances in nature, there is an absence of definite, or what may be termed hard and fast lines. The significance of the boundaries referred to, to the unskilled observer, is still more obscure by the fact that the migratory birds, and to some extent the mammals, annually pass from one zone to another, and besides, several conspicuous mammals and birds are permanent residents in more than one zone.

THE MAMMALS

The relation of the mammals of North America to the similar animals now inhabiting other portions of the earth may be briefly shown by indicating the distribution of the orders into which the mammalia are divided. It will be remembered that in general each order is subdivided into families, these again into genera, the genera into species, and a species may contain several varieties. The classification here adopted is the one used by Lydekker in his Manual of Pal?ontology. An order when represented in the fauna of a continent is indicated in the following table by a plus, and when absent by a minus sign.

CLASS-MAMMALIA

Sub-Classes. Orders. Examples. DISTRIBUTION.

N. Am. S. Am. Eurasia. Africa. Australia.

Eutheria. 1. Primates. Man, lemurs, apes, monkeys. + + + + (Man)

2. Chiroptera. Bats. + + + + +

3. Insectivora. Moles, shrews, hedgehogs. + + + + -

4. Carnivora. Lions, tigers, cats, dogs, seals, etc. + + + + -

5. Rodentia. Beavers, rats, mice, squirrels, rabbits. + + + + +

6. Ungulata. Ox, horse, elephant, tapir, etc. + + + + -

7. Sirenia. Dugong and manatee. + + + + +

8. Cetacea. Whales, dolphins, narwhals. + + + + +

9. Edentata. Sloths, armadillos, ant-eaters. + + + + -

Metatheria. 10. Marsupialia. Kangaroos, opossums, etc. + + - - +

Prototheria. 11. Monotremata. Ornithorhynchus, echidna. - - - - +

1. Of the primates, exclusive of man, the monkeys are the only representatives in North America. Several species are common in Central America, but they are absent from the West Indies, and do not occur north of the terra caliente of Mexico.

2. The bats are world-wide in their distribution, and several genera and species occur on this continent, their northern limit being in central Canada; during the winter in the United States and Canada they hibernate largely in caverns. One family of the Chiroptera, the leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomatid?), are strictly American, having their principal habitat in the southern continent, but ranging as far north as the West Indies, Mexico, and southern California. These are the vampires of which many harrowing tales are told. The Central American species are small, not larger than an English sparrow, but do not hesitate to attack cattle, and even men.

3. The insect-eating mammals are represented by a large number of genera and species, of moles and shrews, but hedgehogs are absent.

4. The flesh-eating animals are well represented by the cats (jaguars, panthers, and lynxes), wolves, bears, racoons, martens, etc. Many species of the seal family occur about the entire coast-line from Panama to the Arctic Ocean. The lion, tiger, leopard, hyena, are absent.

5. The rodents are present in great numbers not only of individuals, but of species and genera; as rats, mice, jumping-mice, squirrels, porcupines, beavers, rabbits, etc.

6. The hoofed animals, ungulates, are represented by the bison, musk-ox, several deer, antelope, mountain-sheep and mountain-goat, tapir, and swine (peccary). Abundant remains of extinct species of the horse family have been found, ranging far back in geological time, but native horses are not known to have existed since the coming of Europeans. The most notable vacancies in this order in the living fauna are the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, camel, giraffe, and elephant, although these are abundantly represented by fossil forms.

7. The Sirenia, which includes certain large herbivorous marine mammals of wide distribution, are represented on the borders of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea by the manatee.

8. The Cetacea are present in the marine waters adjacent to the coast, more especially in the north, where whales of several species, dolphins, the narwhal, etc., are found.

9. Of the Edentata, which are so characteristic of the fauna of South America, and with one exception (the scaly ant-eater, not found in America) do not occur in the Old World, only the armadillo can be credited to North America; of this, two species occur from Texas southward.

10. The marsupials, found nowhere else in the world to-day except in Australia and America, are represented by the opossum, of which two species are common in the United States.

11. The lowest known order of the mammalia, the Monotremata, represented in Australia by the duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus) and the Echidna, is unknown in America.

Considered in reference to their abundance, large size of individuals, and number of species, in comparison with the other orders present, North America may be said to be the home of herbivores. The only continent in rivalry with it in this respect is Africa. More abundant in individuals and species than the herbivorous mammals, however, but smaller in size and frequently diminutive, are the rodents. The carnivores are fortunately limited in number of species, although the individuals of certain species are at times numerous, but not in general dangerous to man.

SOME REPRESENTATIVE MAMMALS

To the general reader the animals of greatest interest are no doubt the mammals, and particularly those which attract the sportsman, are of value for food, or furnish fur and skins for clothing. Of such animals the northern portion of North America and the mountains extending southward into the austral region furnish a large number.

The Musk-Ox.-In the far north, mostly beyond the arctic circle, lives the musk-ox, the hardiest of herbivores, in which, as expressed in its generic name, Ovibos, there is a curious mingling of the characteristics of the sheep and the ox. The teeth are similar to those of the sheep, the female has but two mamm?, and beneath the long yellowish-brown hair of the outer coat there is a thick wool-like growth. Its gentle, inoffensive nature is also similar to that of the sheep. The large feet and the horns, however, are like those of the ox tribe. The horns resemble those of the Cape buffalo, being broad at the base and covering nearly the entire forehead. They slope downward at the sides, and then curve forward and outward, at the same time tapering to a sharp point, which renders them efficient weapons. These characteristics, although intermediate between those of the sheep and the ox, are more strongly inclined to the former. In reality, however, the musk-ox is more goat-like than sheep-like, as is indicated by its covering of hair, its short sturdy legs, the cannon-bone being remarkably short, and its ability as a climber.

A full-grown musk-ox measures about 8 feet in length, inclusive of the short tail, and is 3 feet, 8 or 9 inches in height at the shoulders. The thick-set, shaggy body is supported on short stout legs, and the feet are broad, to serve both as scrapers in clearing away the snow from the moss and herbage on which it lives and in climbing ice-covered slopes.

Its range is over the Barren Grounds of Canada, the islands of the arctic archipelago, and the border of Greenland. Peary found it grazing in herds in the far north of Greenland beyond the inland ice, and was saved from starvation by the food it furnished. Although hardy and well adapted by nature to withstand the most severe cold, it moves southward over the Barren Grounds in winter and to some extent at least seeks shelter in the subarctic forest, but apparently does not pass to the southward of latitude 59°. Like certain other animals of the northern portion of the continent, its habitat is to the northeastward and it is unknown in Alaska.

Bones of the musk-ox found in the frozen soil of Siberia indicate that it formerly had a circumpolar distribution. A skull obtained near Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1871, and the presence of its bones in the superficial deposit of Europe as far south as the Pyrenees, show that it formerly lived far to the southward of its present southern limit. This was during the Pleistocene division of geological history, when glacial ice covered all of Canada and the arctic animals were crowded southward. As the ice melted and its southern margin receded, the musk-ox moved northward. The absence of this species in northern Europe and Asia, where the climatic conditions, nature of the vegetation, etc., are similar to those of its present home, is perhaps due to the influence of man. The successful introduction of the domesticated reindeer into Alaska suggests that beneficial results would follow the transplanting of the musk-ox to northern Siberia.

The Polar Bear.-About all of the northern coast-line of America, including the shore of Bering Sea and Baffin Bay, lives the well-known polar bear, which is circumpolar in its distribution. The wide range of this the most northern of the bear tribe is due not only to its strength and ability to make long journeys over rough ice-floes and the wide distribution of the animals it feeds upon, principally the hair-seal, but is aided by the fact that it takes to the water readily and is a good swimmer. It has also been known to make long journeys on floating ice.

The Eskimo Dog.-Another animal of circumpolar distribution, the original home of which is unknown, is the Eskimo dog, the range of which has no doubt been extended while the distribution of many other animals has been curtailed, owing to human influences.

The Caribou.-The neighbour of the musk-ox in the desolate solitudes of the far north, and in part ranging over the same ground, is the caribou, the American representative of the reindeer. Indeed the caribou and the reindeer have been considered as belonging to the same species by some naturalists, but recently the American division of the genus has been shown to consist of at least five species, each of which differs from the one found in Europe and Asia. Among hunters and sportsmen, two divisions have long been known, namely, the woodland caribou and the Barren Ground caribou. The former includes the larger species, or the caribou proper, as it may be termed, and the recently described species from Newfoundland and Alaska; while the latter is represented by a single species, the Rangifer articus.

The woodland caribou is in general about twice the size of the species inhabiting the Barren Grounds, has a height of 4? feet at the shoulder, and weighs some 250 pounds, although the males sometimes reach a weight of 400 pounds. Its range is from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland northwestward through the subarctic forest to British Columbia and northeastern Alaska. As its popular name signifies, its home is in the forest, and although meeting the smaller form during the latter's southward migrations, it does not extend its range to the Barren Grounds. On the south, it was formerly found in northern Michigan and in southern New York, and thence eastward through Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Owing to the activity with which it has been hunted, it has for the most part been crowded to the north of the St. Lawrence, and is reported to be greatly diminished in numbers even in the wilds of Labrador. It still wanders into the woods of New Hampshire and Maine, and occurs somewhat abundantly in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. It is the caribou of Newfoundland, etc., which comes nearest the reindeer in size and in the shape of its magnificent antlers, but none of the American species has been domesticated.

The Barren-Ground caribou still occurs in large herds in northern Labrador, on the treeless region to the west of Hudson Bay, and in winter migrates southward into the shelter of the subarctic forest. In its northern range it reaches the shore of the Arctic Ocean and the islands adjacent, and on the west follows the tundra to the Bering Sea coast. In Alaska it formerly occurred in immense herds, especially in winter, when it made long inland journeys through the forest and across the frozen rivers, but the invasion of the region by miners and the supplying of the natives with firearms has led to a great reduction in its numbers. In the barren and but seldom traversed region to the west and north of Hudson Bay the caribou is still in its primitive condition and moves in bands numbering several thousand. In this connection an extract from the journal of J. B. Tyrrell, of the Canadian Geological Survey, is of interest: "All day [July 30, 1893] the caribou have been around us in vast numbers, many thousands being assembled in a single herd. One herd collected on the hill behind our camp, and another remained for hours in the wet bog on the point in front of us. The little fawns were running about everywhere, often coming up to within a yard or two of us, uttering their sharp grunts as they stood and looked at us or as they turned and ran back to the does. About noon a large herd had collected on the sides and summit of the hill behind us. Taking a small hand-camera with which we were supplied, we walked quietly among them. As we approached to within a few yards of the dense herd, it opened to let us in and then formed a circle around us, so that we were able to stand for a couple of hours and watch the deer as they stood in the light breeze or rubbed slowly past each other to keep off the black flies. The bucks, with their beautiful branching antlers, kept well to the background. Later in the afternoon a herd of bucks trotted up to us and stood at about 40 yards distant. This was a most beautiful sight, for their horns were fully grown, though still soft at the tips, but unfortunately we had no camera with us. We did no shooting to-day." The herd of caribou just described was estimated to contain between 100,000 and 200,000 animals.

The destruction of the woodland caribou in the eastern portion of Canada has been so great that it is in danger of being exterminated, and great suffering, and even starvation has overtaken the Indians of that region in consequence. Similar, but even more alarming results have followed the thoughtless slaughter of the Barren-Ground caribou in Alaska, and to prevent the suffering and even threatened extermination of the natives, reindeer from Siberia and northern Europe have been introduced by the United States Government[4] and are thriving under the care of herders from Lapland. The moss on which the reindeer feed is abundant in Alaska, and there seems no good reason why they should not become as numerous and useful in their new home as they were in the boreal portion of the Old World. The first reindeer were introduced in Alaska in 1881, and the several herds, collectively, now number 3,323.

[4]The introduction of domesticated reindeer into North America is a very important matter, and one which if properly conducted will add vastly to the food supply and resources for clothing for both native and white people. The civilization of the natives in the northern portion of the continent and the securing for them of a source of subsistence which will depend on their own care and industry hinges on the success of this undertaking. Much information in this connection may be found in the reports of Sheldon Jackson, published by the Bureau of Education at Washington between 1893 and 1900.

The Moose.-This, the largest living representative of the deer tribe, and with the exception of the bison the largest existing land mammal of North America, formerly inhabited the continent throughout its entire breadth from the forty-third to the seventieth degree of latitude, or from the mouth of the Ohio to the mouth of the Mackenzie. Although crowded northward and now found only sparingly in the United States, as, for example, in the extensive forests of Maine and in the still larger forests clothing the mountains of Montana and Idaho, it has held its own in the wildest and most remote portions of the Pacific mountains in Canada and Alaska, where its numbers are perhaps nearly as great as they were a century ago. Its preservation is due not only to its shyness, remarkably quick hearing, and keen sense of smell, but to its solitary habits and the fact that it does not gather in herds during the breeding season, like most other deer.

A full-grown male moose is from 7 to 8 feet high at the shoulder, and from 10 to 12 feet high at the tip of the magnificent antlers when standing erect, and is from 800 to 1,200 pounds in weight. The broad palmate antlers with numerous sharp points sometimes measure 8? feet or more from tip to tip. The does are without antlers, and are still more ungainly than the long-legged and apparently awkward males. Stringent laws are now enforced for the protection of the moose in all of the inhabited portions of its range, and it is likely to survive and to continue to tempt the sportsman to traverse the wild regions it inhabits for several generations to come.

The Wapiti.-Next in size to the moose, and in many ways the grandest of the deer tribe not only of America, but of the world, is the wapiti or American elk. In language not pedantic, W. A. Perry speaks as follows of this noble animal: "Monarch of the wilderness, lord of the mountain, king of the plain, what hunter who has sought thee in thy pine-embowered home whose heart-beat does not quicken and whose eye does not brighten at the mention of thy name! For with it comes the recollection of boundless prairies, grass-robed and flower-decked; of pine-clad, snow-capped mountains; of sweet breezes, gentle melodies, and grand trophies. I once heard an Indian speak his last words, and they were these: 'To-morrow, in the Spirit Land, again shall I chase the wapiti.'"

Although the wapiti is one of the typical animals of the boreal region, in its primitive freedom it overstepped the boundaries of the life-zones which science seeks to define, and marched southward far into the austral region. It was found at the coming of the white man in nearly all parts of what is now the United States, and extended from the table-land of north-central Mexico northward to the fifty-sixth or fifty-seventh degree of latitude, or about the position of Lake Athabasca. Its northern range thus overlapped the region inhabited by the moose and caribou, while at the south it was exposed to the attacks of the jaguar. As civilization advanced across the continent, the wapiti slowly retreated, and in diminished numbers it now lives in the wildest portion of the Pacific mountains to the north of Snake River and the Columbia. It is still abundant in the Olympic Mountains of Washington, the Bitter Root Mountains of Idaho, and in Montana. A large herd finds protection in the Yellowstone National Park, but in winter, when migrating southward, is exposed to most destructive attacks from both white and Indian hunters. Among the mountains of the mainland in British Columbia and the central and more rugged portion of Vancouver Island it is still the "king of the wilderness."

The male wapiti at maturity is some 7 or 8 feet high at the shoulders, and lifts its wide-spreading antlers fully 11 feet from the ground. Its weight is from 800 to possibly 1,100 pounds. The colour is, in general, dark brown, with lighter shades on the thighs, and changing to black beneath the body; there are stripes of light brown on either side of the tail which join an area of similar colour beneath the hind legs; the colour varies, however, at different seasons and in different individuals. The head is small, well formed, and beautiful. The carriage of the animal and its bold, undaunted mien, when roaming its native mountains and glens, is all and more than poets ascribe to the stag of the Old World.

Stringent laws are now on the statute-books for the protection of the wapiti, both in the United States and Canada, but the difficulties in the way of enforcing them in regions remote from civilization are great. The wapiti does not extend into the most forbidding wilds of the far north, where its safety as a species, as in the case of the moose, would be insured, and besides, congregates in bands, which facilitates its slaughter. Its range has been steadily decreasing since the coming of the white man, and particularly since the introduction of firearms among the Indians, and its extinction, outside of reservations and parks, is to be expected in the near future.

The Smaller Deer.-Besides the caribou, moose, and wapiti, there are half a dozen or more members of the deer family (Cervid?) represented in the fauna of North America. Of these the Virginia deer is best known, as its range embraces the most thickly settled portion of the continent between Maine and the Gulf States, and from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains. In spite of indiscriminate slaughter and poorly enforced game laws, this species has not only held its own, but in recent years has greatly increased in number in certain localities. To the west of the range of the Virginia deer and merging with it in part, in the Pacific mountain region occur the white-tailed, black-tailed mule, and sonora deer, and perhaps other species. The combined ranges of these several species embrace the larger part of the continent and extend from eastern Canada to the Pacific coast, and from southern Alaska to Panama.

Next to the deer comes the antelope, formerly so common on the Great plateaus. This, the pronghorn antelope, as it is usually termed, is about the size of the domestic sheep, but with long slim legs, and is a most active and exceedingly graceful animal. Its true home is on the treeless plateaus east of the Rocky Mountains, but its range extends from Saskatchewan to northern Mexico, and from the Prairie plains to the Cascade Mountains in Oregon. It has steadily decreased in number, especially during the last quarter of a century, and is now no longer seen in the large bands that were formerly an attractive feature of the sea-like plains over which it travels seemingly with the freedom of a bird.

The animals thus far referred to have their range determined mainly by the broader features of climate, but not in a conspicuous way by the relief of surface. They inhabit mountains, plateaus, and plains alike, as is shown most conspicuously in the case of the wapiti, which formerly grazed in large herds on the prairies of the Mississippi Valley, and has been killed at an elevation of over 10,000 feet in the Pacific mountains. Not so, however, with the mountain-climbers whose names follow, which have their chosen "station" on the mountains at timber-line and ascend as far above that horizon as vegetation grows.

The Bighorn or Mountain-Sheep.-The bighorn, of which three species are now recognised, has its home in the Pacific mountains from northern Mexico to central and northern Alaska. Its vertical range is also great, as it has been seen on the precipitous walls of the Grand Ca?on of the Colorado, but a few hundred feet above sea-level, and about the summits of the peaks of Colorado and in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains at elevations of from 10,000 to 13,000 feet. An exception to the fact that the bighorn is usually found on rugged mountains and is most at home on seemingly inaccessible cliffs is furnished by bands which live and appear to thrive amid the Bad Lands along the Missouri River, some 400 miles to the eastward of the Stony Mountains.

The bighorn resembles the wapiti in colour, although it is of a lighter brown, especially in winter. It is clothed with wool beneath the stiff outer coat of hair, and is a true sheep, but larger than any domesticated variety of Ovis. The rams attain a height of at least 3 feet 6 inches at the shoulder, and weigh some 300 or 400 pounds. Both sexes are provided with horns, but those of the male are much the larger, and in the finest examples attain a length of 30 inches, measured along the outer curve, and a circumference at the base of 15 or 16 inches. The most magnificent head ever obtained, so far as the writer has been able to learn, is that of a ram shot in the Selkirk Mountains, the horns of which are 52? inches in length, measured along the outer curve, and 18? inches in circumference at the base. These immense horns are used, as in the case of the domestic ram, in fighting, but the widely current statement in reference to the animals alighting on them when jumping from precipices is entirely mythical. The bighorn is a fearless and skilful mountaineer, and will climb or descend precipices by bounding from ledge to ledge where the most reckless hunter dares not follow. Its ability to find a sure footing on even smoothly glaciated rocks is due to the peculiar structure of the feet, which have a rubber-like pad beneath the sharp-pointed and sharp-edged hoofs.

The Mazama or Mountain-Goat.-The companion of the bighorn on the lofty mountains, but even more thoroughly a mountaineer, is the so-called mountain-goat, Aplocerus montanus, which, in spite of its long hair, short curved horns, sturdy legs, bearded chin, and general goat-like appearance, and more than the goat's ability to climb, is in reality more nearly related to the antelope than it is to the sheep. This alpine antelope, unlike its cousin of the plains, is only at home on dizzy heights, and summer and winter alike lives at timber-line on the mountains or in the alpine gardens adjacent to perpetual snow.

One of the earliest generic names under which it is assumed this alpine antelope was included, namely, Mazama, although rejected by naturalists, has recently been revived and adopted by an enthusiastic mountaineering club in Portland, Oregon, as their name, and is likely to become widely known. Among the hunters and the inhabitants generally of the region where the animal under consideration lives it is termed the mountain-goat, and no protest from naturalists, however well founded, is likely to bring about a change in this connection.

The mazama is entirely white, excepting its hoofs, horns, and narrow lines about the eyes and nostrils, which are black. In general, it is smaller than the bighorn, but bucks have been reported to attain a length of nearly 6 feet and a weight of some 300 or 400 pounds. Its habitat is not only higher on the mountains but more restricted in geographical extent than that of the bighorn. It is said to live about Mount Whitney, the highest summit in the Sierra Nevada, but is unknown farther south; in Colorado it is reported to have been seen on a few of the higher peaks, but its main range begins well to the north of these outlying localities, in the mountains of Montana and Idaho and in the Cascades. To the north of the United States it occurs throughout the higher ranges of British Columbia and in the mountains of southern Alaska as far west at least as Cook Inlet. It is plentiful and as yet undisturbed by hunters on the foot-hills about Mount St. Elias, where the alpine conditions congenial to it occur at an elevation of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea. Like all of the larger animals, and especially the herbivores, the bighorn and the mazama are sought by sportsmen, but on account of the ruggedness of the regions they inhabit and their wariness they are likely to survive when most other examples of "big game" shall have been exterminated. Both the bighorn and the mazama are sought by Indians for food and for their pelts, and their horns are frequently used, especially in Alaska, in the manufacture of spoons. They are practically of no economic importance to white men, although their flesh when young is excellent food, and their fleeces would be of value to the weaver if they could be obtained in sufficient quantity. They serve, however, to entice the sportsman, who is usually an ardent lover of nature, into some of the wildest and grandest regions the continent affords. Their value in this connection is not to be measured in dollars, and strenuous efforts should be made to insure their continuance.

Fig. 31.-Bison at Silver Heights, Winnipeg. (Photograph by William Notman & Son.)

The Bison.-Of all the larger mammals of North America, none was more numerous at the time Europeans advanced over the continent than the bison or "buffalo" (Bos americanus), and none more important alike to the Indian and the white man. The part played by this relative of the domestic ox in the history of the country is not only instructive, but one of the best illustrations that can be furnished of the practical extermination of a species through the greed and lack of forethought of so-called civilized man.

The bison is a shaggy, brown animal, about the size of the well-known Durham breed of cattle, but with a larger head and a prominent hump on the shoulders (Fig. 31). The hind quarters are small in comparison with the massive head and shoulders, and appear weak. The head, neck, shoulders, and fore legs are covered with thick matted hair, at times 16 inches long and of a dark-brown colour merging into black. The straight black hair beneath the chin of the bull is usually some 10 inches in length, and as the animal carries its head low, frequently sweeps the ground. Back of the medial portion of the body the hair is short and of a yellowish-brown colour, or "between dark umber and a living-liver brown," as Audubon says. There is much variation in colour, however, and distinct varieties have been stated to exist. The horns, hoofs, and a bare space about the nostrils and mouth are black.

The weight of a fully grown bull is about 2,000 pounds, and of a cow 1,200 pounds.

Fig. 32.-Range of the Bison.

The boundaries of the region in which the bison has been seen by white men, together with the dates of its extermination in various sections of the country, etc., are shown in Fig. 32. In about 1870 the vast herd which ranged over the treeless plateaus and Prairie plains between the Rio Grande and Great Slave Lake was divided, owing to the great slaughter that occurred in the vicinity of the Central Pacific Railroad, into two herds, one of which had its summer range in Montana and neighbouring territory, but moved northward in summer into Canada, while the other fed on the plains of the west Texas region in winter and moved northward in summer as far as southern Nebraska. In each case a southward movement was begun as winter approached, but these seasonal changes scarcely warrant the name of migrations.

The number of these large animals living between the Mississippi and Rocky Mountains previous to 1872, even after being hunted for centuries by the Indians and killed in constantly increasing numbers each year by white men for half a century, can only be reckoned in millions. Many trustworthy observations are on record, however, from which the vastness of the herds can be approximately judged. For example, R. I. Dodge thus refers to a herd which he passed through in the Arkansas Valley in May, 1871, when it was moving northward: "The great herd could not have averaged, at rest, over 15 or 20 individuals to the acre, but was not less than 25 miles wide, and from reports of hunters and others it was about five days in passing a given point, or not less than 50 miles deep. From the top of Pawnee Rock I could see from 6 to 10 miles in almost every direction. This whole vast space was covered with buffalo, looking at a distance like one compact mass, the visual angle not permitting the ground to be seen." From this and other observations, W. T. Hornaday has estimated that the herd referred to numbered not less than 4,000,000 individuals. From the records kept by railroad companies of the number of skins shipped over their lines and other evidences, it has been computed that of the southern herd mentioned above over 3,500,000 individuals were killed during the years 1872, 1873, and 1874. The northern herd seems to have been at least as large as the southern one, so that the entire number on the Great plateaus in any one year for the decade preceding 1870 was not less than 8,000,000, and even this vast number seems to be an underestimate.

The great slaughter of the southern herd occurred from 1872 to 1874, and of the northern herd ten years later. In 1889, as stated by Hornaday, the bisons running at large in North America numbered but 635. In 1902 the number of bison in the United States was reported to be 800, the increase being due to protection extended to the herds, and perhaps also to a more accurate count.

Fur-Bearing Animals.-Of the animals of North America which are taken for their fur, the seal and sea-otter have already been referred to in connection with the brief review presented of the life of the continental shelf. As is well known, the colder regions of the earth are the ones which yield the most valuable furs, and in the fur trade of the world this continent, on account of its wide expansion at the north, has taken the leading place as a producer. In fact, the fur trade is a prominent feature in the history of America, and one whose followers experienced great vicissitudes and countless adventures.

The animals that tempted the tireless and fearless sons particularly of France, England, Scotland, and Russia to build their fortified trading-posts throughout the subarctic forest from the St. Lawrence to the Mackenzie and Yukon, were principally the beaver, sable, ermine, fox, mink, wolverene, bear, otter, wolf, lynx, musk-rat, skunk, marmot, etc. Nearly all of these animals are forest dwellers, and several of them, as the beaver, otter, mink, and musk-rat, haunt the shores of streams and lakes. Of the sable, there are two species, known as the marten and the fisher. The bears are represented by at least four species. The foxes number at least a dozen species, of which four are especially prized for the beauty of their fur, namely, the arctic, red, cross, and silver.

While the fur-bearing animals named above are characteristic of the life of the boreal region of North America, a number of the species, and, in fact, nearly all of them, range southward into the austral region, especially in the more humid and generally forest-covered portions of both the Pacific and Atlantic mountains, while one of the most important as regards the beauty of its fur-the otter (Lutra canadensis), frequently termed the land-otter, in order not to confound it with its larger and far more valuable cousin, the sea-otter (Enhydra marina)-reaches the torrid region and is still living in Florida, and has been reported as occurring in Central America.

Of all the fur-bearing animals referred to above, the most valuable when the total number of skins that have been taken is considered, and in many ways the most interesting, is the beaver, of which but one living species (Castor canadensis), closely allied to the beaver of northern Europe, is known in America. Fully grown individuals are about 3 feet in length, one-third of which is to be credited to the broad, flat, scale-covered tail, and weighs some 50 or 60 pounds. The outer coat of its pelage consists of rather coarse brown hair, beneath which there is a fine, soft, dark fur, which makes its skin of commercial value. In dressing the skins the hair is plucked, the fine fur beneath being clipped to a uniform length and usually dyed. The formerly well-known beaver hat was made from this fur, but in recent years silk has taken its place. The importance of the American beaver is illustrated by the fact that some 7,000,000 skins have been sold in London by the Hudson's Bay Company since the year 1752. Not only is the fur of the beaver in demand, but its flesh, and especially the muscles of the tail, are prized for food by hunters and others who live the free, open-air life of the frontier, although it is seldom exposed for sale in the markets of cities.

The beaver is of interest to the geographer not only on account of its wide distribution, which embraced the entire continent wherever the willow, birch, alder, etc., on which it subsisted, could grow, from northern Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, but for the reason that it made more conspicuous and lasting changes in the minor features of the surface of the land than any other mammal. One of its peculiar habits is that it gnaws down trees frequently 6 or 8 inches in diameter, and after cutting them into sticks a few feet in length, uses them in making dams across small streams. These dams were built in thousands and tens of thousands all through the forested regions, and being plastered with mud, and still further enlarged and strengthened by the accumulation of driftwood and leaves, held the waters of the streams in check and caused them to expand so as to form small lakes, ponds, and swamps. These beaver-dam lakes are common even at the present day, and many of them which have been filled with sediment or drained furnish rich lands, now utilized for gardens and cultivated fields. In Michigan these beaver-dam lakes furnish the rich black soil so favourable for the raising of celery and other vegetables. The beaver has disappeared from all but the wilder and more inaccessible portions of the continent, but the influence of the changes it made in the drainage of the land will endure for many generations to come.

Of the fur-bearing animals mentioned above, none are more definitely American than the skunks, or, to use a more felicitous name, Mephitis, which ranges from central Canada to central Mexico, and is represented by four or five species. As stated by Elliott Coues in his instructive monograph on the North America Mustelid?, the skunks are closely related to the badgers, being heavy-bodied, short-legged, stout in build, with hairy tails and generally loose pelage. They neither climb trees nor swim in water; their gait is slow, and they do not allow themselves to be hurried, even in the face of danger; their retreats are burrows in the ground or dens in rocks and hollow logs, and sometimes in the nooks and corners of dwellings and outhouses. Their most common representative, Mephitis mephitica, is a beautiful animal some 15 or 20 inches in length, exclusive of its bushy tail, which is usually 12 to 15 inches long. The head is small, the ears low and short, and the hair of a glossy black, relieved by conspicuous white markings which are not only irregular in shape, but vary with individuals. The most marked characteristic of the skunks is their ability to emit at will a fluid which has the most disagreeable and sickening odour known. This fluid is secreted in two glands, each about one inch in diameter, situated at the base of the tail and opening into the rectum, but has no connection with the secretions of the kidneys, and is probably seldom discharged except when the animal is annoyed. It is a unique and most efficient means of defence. In this connection it is to be remembered, however, that the skunks belong to the family Mustelid?, which is characterized in part by the odoriferous secretions present in its various species, but, above all others, the odours emitted by the genera under consideration are the most dreadful. The stench produced by these animals when startled or enraged is not only horrible beyond description, but endures for months and even a year or more. The yellow liquid which is ejected is squirted in a fine spray for a distance of some 6 or 8 feet, but its odour may sometimes be perceived, even when the wind is still, for a distance of a quarter of a mile.

The skunk having this one unconquerable means of defence from all its enemies except man, exhibits evidence of degeneration in other respects. When discharging its odoriferous fluid it faces its enemy, who is held at bay or retreats, and hence, not being compelled to run, has acquired a slow, wavering gait and deliberate movements; having no occasion to ascend trees for safety, it has lost or failed to develop the ability to climb; and its lack of other powers which are highly developed in its near of kin may be used in illustration in a similar way. It is practically removed from the attacks of enemies excepting dogs and other canines and some birds of prey, but has to adapt itself to conditions of climate and food supply. In winter in the northern portion of its habitat it becomes more or less torpid, and during the coldest weather usually hibernates, thus lessening the exertion required to procure sustenance. When the temperature is not excessively low it seeks its food, which consists of insects, birds' eggs, small reptiles, mice, etc., and in settled regions visits the poultry-yards, and thus increases the enmity extended to it by all mankind, who have ever been disgusted by its odours. Another objectionable fact in reference to this despised yet, we may perhaps say, respectfully treated animal, is that its bite sometimes produces hydrophobia.

The skunks are not only widely distributed in North America, occupying perhaps a larger area in the austral than they do in the boreal region, but are influenced to a less extent by climatic and topographic conditions than probably any other genera among our mammals. It lives among mountains and on plateaus and plains, and in forests as well as on the open prairies, and extends from humid regions like eastern Canada and New England to the dry, semi-desert valley of New Mexico, and from the cold shores of the Great Lakes and central Canada to the warm Gulf States. Although offensive, and everywhere declared a nuisance, and persecuted as such, as well as trapped and hunted for its pelt, its range has been decreased but little since the settlement of the country by Europeans, although its numbers are greatly reduced. Its beautiful fur when deodorized and dyed of a uniform black is sold under the name "Alaskan sable," "black marten," "American sable," etc., and is extensively worn even by the most fashionably attired dames of every land.

The Bears.-Of the bears native to North America, as was stated by S. F. Baird in 1857, the number of species is somewhat indefinite, but four are commonly recognised and mention is sometimes made of two others. This uncertainty as to the number of species of the genus Ursus, I believe, still exists, and in itself is significant. If the bears have not been satisfactorily classified, as is apparently the case, it suggests that they exhibit great variations and that the drawing of hard and fast specific boundaries among them is difficult, and perhaps impossible.

The species which are usually recognised are the polar bear, the grizzly, the cinnamon, and the black. Of the black and brown or cinnamon bears there seems to be several varieties, some of which are perhaps worthy of being considered species. On the other hand, it must be remembered that Baird and others makes the cinnamon a variety of the black bear. Again the grizzly and cinnamon intergrade in such a manner that an experienced naturalist has considered them to be but extremes of a single species.

The polar bear is distinguished from its kindred, at least in a general way, by its large size and white or yellowish-white colour. These and other differences from its relatives have led naturalists to place it in a distinct genus, of which it is the only species. It is circumpolar in its distribution, and in America occurs along the coast, seldom travelling inland except during the breeding season, when it is sometimes met with 25 miles from the ocean. Its southern range on the Atlantic coast is in northern Labrador, but it is occasionally carried on floating ice as far south as Newfoundland. It inhabits the shores of Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean. On the west coast it reaches Bering Strait, and is carried on floating ice to the islands in the northern part of Bering Sea, and at rare intervals reaches the Pribilof Islands. It is probably strictly carnivorous, and lives principally on the seal. It is supposed to be the largest of the bear tribe, but is certainly approached if not rivalled in size by the brown bear of southern Alaska. As many arctic explorers testify, it is dangerous to man and will lead in an attack.

The famous grizzly or "silver tip" inhabits the Pacific mountains, but is best known in the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada. Although like all kindred species presenting conspicuous individual variations, it is usually dark in colour, with white tips to some of the hairs. The pelage is long, almost shaggy, and gives the animal even a more formidable appearance than its great size and strength justifies. It is not only one of the largest of the American bears, ranking in this respect with the polar bear and the largest of the huge brown bears, but is also probably the fiercest, and not infrequently has been known to attack man, although it will usually retreat from the presence of human beings if an opportunity is available. Full-grown individuals are about 8 feet in length and weigh in the neighbourhood of 1,000 to 1,200 pounds.

The brown bear, of which there are perhaps three species, including the Barren-Ground bear of the north-central part of Canada, are, as their name signifies, of a brown or cinnamon colour, but present great variation in this respect. Some are of a decided yellow, while others become dark and are scarcely distinguishable from the true grizzly. They reach a great size, particularly in southern Alaska, and possibly in certain instances even exceed the polar bear in dimensions and weight. The tracks of one which I measured near Mount St. Elias were 16 inches long by 8 inches wide, and the stride was 64 inches. The range of the brown bear is confined principally to the Pacific mountains, but is of greater extent than that of the true grizzlies and includes central Canada.

The black bears are of almost continental distribution and occurred in all or nearly all wooded districts before the balance of natural conditions was disturbed by the coming of the white man. They are the smallest of the bear tribe on this continent and are usually harmless, but at times when attacked or approached suddenly, especially if accompanied by their young, become formidable enemies. Their colour is usually a glossy black, but much variation occurs, especially about the head, and this and other differences are thought by some to indicate specific distinctions. A seemingly well-marked variety occurring in southern Alaska, which has a thick bluish-black under-fur, has recently been described as a distinct species.

Near relatives of the bear are the racoons, of which several species are present, one being abundant in the eastern portion of the United States and the other in the Pacific mountains.

The Cats.-The Felid? are represented by two genera, Felis and Lynx, each of which contains several species.

Of the true cats, the largest is the beautiful jaguar, or American tiger, Felis onza, which is nearly as large, and by some said to be equal in size to its Asiatic relative. It more nearly approaches the leopard, however, in the character of its spots as well as in its arboreal habit, but exceeds it in size. The jaguar is some 4 feet or more in length to the base of the tail, and the tail is about 3 feet long. Its general colour is a soft-yellowish passing into dark brown and black, with large rosette- or somewhat lozenge-shaped spots, which take the form of indefinite rings of dark fur with lighter centres, within which there are one or two dark dots or eyes. The skins are fully as beautiful as those of the tiger or leopard, and are highly prized for rugs, and in some cases have been used for clothing. A dark, nearly black variety (or perhaps more properly, examples of melanism) has been described as a distinct species, and is sometimes spoken of as the black tiger.

The centre of distribution of the jaguar is probably in the great Amazonian forest, but it ranges over nearly all of South America, throughout Central America, and extends northward to Texas and perhaps Louisiana.

Next to the jaguar in importance is the widely known panther. Unlike most of its relatives, this species has an essentially uniform colour. The fur on the back, head, and tail is of a tawny brownish-yellow, but varies somewhat with changes in seasons. The under parts are of a dirty white. The animal when full-grown is of a formidable size, the larger examples being nearly 5 feet long from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail. The stout cylindrical tail is from 20 to over 30 inches long. In spite of its size and great strength the panther is not to be feared so long as room for its escape is open, as it is a great coward. One of the most interesting facts concerning this species is its unusually great range. Before being disturbed by white men it inhabited practically the entire width of both North and South America, from Hudson Bay to Patagonia, an extreme range of some 110 degrees of latitude. It is most at home in the mountains and is seldom seen on open plains. It is still common in the Pacific mountains of the United States and Canada.

Of the smaller cats, several of which are beautifully marked, mention may be made of the ocelot of the Texas region and the lynx or American wildcat. The latter, of which there are at least three varieties, is yet common, and maintains approximately its original range, which embraces the entire width of the continent from the subarctic forest at least as far south as northern Mexico.

The Wolves.-In the history of the establishment of English colonies in this country, and throughout the spread of civilization across the continent, many accounts are given of encounters with wolves. These stories as they have been handed down have probably in many instances been magnified, but there is no doubt but that the larger wolves, such as the gray timber-wolf, once common in the northern portion of the United States, when assembled in packs and pressed by hunger, were formidable antagonists.

Of the wolves, four species are usually recognised, but their great variation, in each instance, has led to the description of numerous varieties, some of which have by certain writers been given the dignity of distinct species. The largest is the gray wolf, which is white or grizzly gray in colour, and frequently 5 feet or more in length and weighs 50 to 60 pounds. Individuals have been killed, however, which exceed these measures. The range of this species, or group of species as the case may be, was originally continental, but more particularly in the forested regions. Its hair, which is frequently 4 inches or more in length, and the fine thick under-fur make the skins valuable for robes, but they are seldom used for clothing, except by the Indians and Eskimos. The hood of the outer garment worn by Eskimos, termed a parkie, is frequently fringed about the face-opening with the long warm hair of the wolf.

A smaller species, the coyote, is still common on the western plains, and is termed the prairie-wolf. It is a comparatively small animal, although frequently 3 feet in length of body with a bushy tail two-thirds as long, and is of a skulking, cowardly nature. Its colour is usually a yellowish gray, and its skin, although used for robes, is much inferior to that of the gray wolf. Its range is from northern Mexico northward throughout the great plateaus, and in the valleys of the Pacific mountains into Canada. It is usually the first of the larger mammals the traveller in that region learns the existence of, even at the present day. Several individuals frequently gather together just after sunset and make their presence known by barking and howling in concert. These serenades last but a short time, however, and are likely to be repeated in the morning just before sunrise. During the night the animals composing these bands seem to scatter and hunt for food singly, but reunite in the early morning, after which they again separate and seek secluded individual retreats.

Brief Mention of Other Mammals.-In order to convey an adequate idea of the large variety and richness of the North American mammalian fauna far more space would be required than is at present available. Indeed, of the smaller mammals much more research is evidently needed before even the number of genera and species can be enumerated, much less their life histories and economic importance made known, as is indicated by the fact that a large number of species previously recognised has been described during the past two or three years.

Of the abundant smaller mammals, none are more attractive or beautiful than the arboreal squirrels, of which several species are widely known. One of these, the common red squirrel, is remarkable for its wide range and adaptability to a great variety of conditions. It is abundant in the valley of the Yukon and even north of the arctic circle, throughout the forest-covered portions of Canada, and as far south as the South Atlantic States. Of less extensive range is the gray squirrel and the black squirrel, common in New England, and the somewhat larger and yet more beautiful fox squirrel of the central part of the continental basin. There are also a large number of species of ground squirrels, and several species of flying-squirrels. The rodents are also represented by the marmots, certain species of which are exceedingly numerous near timber-line in many of the ranges of the Pacific mountains as far north at least as Mount St. Elias, and by gophers, chipmunks, lemmings, the musk-rat, porcupines, rabbits, hares, rats, mice, etc. The list might also be extended by enumerating the bats, shrews, and moles, but we are compelled to cut short this most interesting portion of our review.

Mammalian Families Peculiar to America.-While there are many genera and species of mammals found only on this continent, the number of families that are peculiar to it is small. Among the characteristic families, most of which, however, extend into South America, none are of greater interest in the study of geographical distribution than the opossums, of which there are 3 genera and some 22 species, all of them confined to the New World. Of these, two species are common in North America: one, the Virginia opossum, abundant throughout the eastern portion of the United States to the south of New York, and the other and smaller species, which inhabits Mexico and extends northward into southern California and Texas. Many representatives of this same family occur in Central and South America, some of which are notable on account of their diminutive size. The opossums are of peculiar interest owing to the fact that they are the only representatives of the marsupials now living outside of Australia. Fossil species occur, however, in the Tertiary rock of Europe, so that the American forms cannot be considered as indicating a recent land connection between this continent and Australia.

The porcupines are also representative of the New World fauna, although not strictly confined to it, and belong mostly in the northern continent. The Canadian porcupine is found throughout nearly the entire forested portion of the boreal region and extends as far south as the Middle Atlantic States, and an allied species, but of larger size, inhabits a portion of the same region and extends to the Pacific mountains and occurs in Alaska.

The racoons are strictly American and inhabit both continents. They are common in the forests of Central America and Mexico, and extend as far north as central Canada.

Of the several families of smaller and less well-known mammals peculiar to this continent, mention may be made of the pouched rats of California.

All of the animals to which attention has thus far been directed are now living; should one attempt to describe the great number of fossil forms whose bones have been discovered in the rocks, the menagerie would be vastly enlarged, and many exceedingly strange species, genera, families, and even larger divisions of the animal kingdom, added to the extended procession.

THE BIRDS

When one attempts to write an account of the birds of North America, the heavens seem darkened with such a multitude of varied and beautiful forms and the air filled with such a discordant clamour mingled with the sweetest of music that failure to convey an adequate idea of the countless numbers and diversity of the feathered throng within the compass of a few pages must be recognised from the start.

The important place held by the birds of North America in the avifauna of the world, may perhaps be best indicated by noting first of all what orders and families are without representatives among them.

The orders under which the birds of the world are arranged in the scheme of classification adopted by Wallace in his great work on the geographical distribution of animals are as follows:

CLASS-AVES

Orders. Examples.

1. Passeres Includes the greater number of the smaller birds, such as kingbirds, flycatchers, larks, jays, crows, blackbirds, finches, sparrows, warblers, chickadees, swallows, thrushes, etc., numbering in North America some 328 species and many subspecies.

2. Picari? Woodpeckers, cuckoos, toucans, kingfishers, swifts, goat-suckers, humming-birds, etc.

3. Psittaci Parrots only.

4. Columb? Pigeons and the dodo.

5. Gallin? Grouse, pheasants, quail, jungle-fowl, turkeys, guinea-fowl, etc.

6. Opisthocomi The hoazin of Guiana and Brazil only.

7. Accipitres Eagles, owls, vultures, hawks, buzzards, falcons, etc.

8. Grall? Rails, snipes, plovers, cranes, herons, storks, flamingoes, etc.

9. Anseres Ducks, geese, gulls, petrels, pelicans, penguins, loons, auks, etc.

10. Struthiones Ostrich, rhea, cassowaries, emeus, apteryx.

Of these ten orders, all but two are abundantly represented in North America. The missing orders include the ostrich-like birds, of which the only species in the New World is the rhea, of the southern portion of South America, and the peculiar hoazin, represented by a single species found in Guiana and Brazil.

The eight orders under which the birds of North America have been arranged (other classifications, however, have been adopted by various naturalists) have again been subdivided into families, genera, species, etc. According to Wallace's summary, the 8 orders referred to contain 124 families, of which 75 are not represented in North America to the north of the lowlands of Mexico, while 47 families are present. Of these 47 families, 25 are essentially of world-wide distribution, and only 1, containing a single species, a small wren-like bird of the genus Cham?a, found in California, is peculiar to the fauna of the continent.

As the North American continent under the arrangement adopted for the series of books of which the one in hand forms a part, is considered as including the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America, the above summary does not represent its entire bird fauna, but presents, perhaps, the best general idea of it that is at present attainable. To include the birds of the tropical portion of the continent would add greatly to the number of species, but I believe not materially to the number of families and orders, as given above.

In reviewing the distribution of the land birds of North America to the north of Mexico, but including lower California, J. A. Allen places the total number of genera, as given in the check-list of the American Ornithologists' Union, at 181. Of these, 55, or 30 per cent, are circumpolar or otherwise wide-ranging Old World forms; 126 genera, or 70 per cent, are American, of which 35, or 28 per cent, are essentially tropical, leaving 91 genera, or about 50 per cent, as distinctly North American.

The number of species in the avifauna of the continent, according to the latest check-list published by the American Ornithologists' Union (1895), is 768, together with a large number of subspecies. If the tropical portion of the continent were included, this number would be greatly increased and possibly doubled.

A further generalization has been advanced by Allen, who states that in the arctic portion of the continent the number of genera of birds present during the breeding season is 65, of which only 5 are exclusively American. In the cold temperate belt 120 genera are represented, of which 98 are circumpolar and 22 American. In the warm temperate belt 95 genera occur which do not range into the cold temperate belt, and of these only 12 are Old World forms, while 83 are exclusively American, and in addition 60 genera are common to both the cold and the warm temperate zone, of which 46 are represented in the fauna of the Old World, while 14 are American. This gives 155 genera for the warm temperate zone, of which 58 are Old World and 97 exclusively American. There are besides 50 essentially tropical genera which extend into the warm temperate zone, of which 43 are American and 7 tropicopolitan. The avifauna of the warm temperate zone thus contains a total of 205 genera.

The above enumeration indicates the rapid increase in the variety of bird life met with as one travels from the arctic to the Gulf coast of the continent, and in this connection it is to be remembered that the land contracts in breadth towards the south. In number of individuals, however, it is doubtful if there are less per square mile at the north than at the south during the breeding season.

There is a decrease in the number of Old World forms inhabiting North America from north to south. A similar decrease in mammalian species common to America and Eurasia has previously been referred to, and the same explanation applies in each case, namely, the near approach of the land areas of the Old and the New World at the north, and the actual union of the two continents in late geological time.

As has been shown by Allen, the species of birds of the temperate and boreal zones of North America were derived in part from the Old World, in part from types almost universally distributed throughout the warmer latitudes, and in part from tropical America, but to a marked extent the species present developed where they are now found. This generalization is in harmony with the geographical relations of the continent to other land areas, and with the fundamental principles of evolution.

Migrations.-Among the many facts of interest to the geographer in connection with the bird life, none present a more fascinating field for study than the annual migrations in which a very large number of the species participate.

As one travels northward from Mexico or the Gulf States, the number of species of birds which remain in essentially the same area throughout the year, or the residents as they are termed, becomes less and less. In New England and about the southern shores of the Great Lakes there are about 30 species which remain all winter and may justly claim to be citizens. Besides these, there are several visitors that come from the north and belong to the vast army of migrants, but which are contented with a comparatively small change of position during the periods of greatest cold or heaviest snow. In the far north the number of residents is still more restricted. On the tundras fringing the arctic coast even the snow-owls, snow-buntings, and the ptarmigans, the hardiest of birds, move southward during the winter to the shelter of the subarctic forest, and bird life on the vast frozen morasses is practically, if not absolutely, wanting.

The millions of birds that journey southward each fall begin their return migrations at the first promise of spring. Even during unusually mild spells of weather in winter, temporary northward movements occur. The migratory birds are actuated by such a strong desire to regain their nesting places and summer homes that they embrace every opportunity to journey towards them, and not infrequently suffer severely for the risks they take. In some instances species which have begun their northward flight too soon are killed by thousands owing to a return of severely cold weather or die for lack of food.

The first definite northward migration in the southern portion of the Mississippi Valley begins during exceptionally favourable years as early as the end of January, but the great movement of the feathered hosts is not usually at its height before the middle of March or the first of April. In New England the current of migration begins between the middle of February and the first of March, and increases in strength until the middle of May, when it is at its height, and then rapidly declines and is practically over by the beginning of June. In the far north, the first arrival from the southward, and that a species which does not make a long annual journey, usually appears early in April. At Point Barrow, the most northern portion of Alaska, as was observed by John Murdock in 1882 and 1883, the first harbinger of spring was a snow-bunting, which arrived the first year on April 9th. The northward-flowing tide of bird life ends early in July in the region of the Yukon, and by the middle of that month the vast flocks have been separated and the many mates have found their nesting places. The time taken for the general movement is thus in the neighbourhood of four months.

The northward flight of the birds is seldom, if ever, one continuous journey, but like many other movements in nature, progresses by pulsations. Well-defined "bird-waves" have been recognised especially in the Mississippi Valley. The direct or immediate cause of the starting of these waves of life is the coming of a wave of heat. Secondary or modifying conditions are furnished by strength and direction of the wind, cloudiness, rain, etc. As the weather in spring-time is fickle, and its variations not the same for any two consecutive years, so the gathering of the birds into flocks and their northward flights vary, although for a term of years the arrival of a given species at a particular station does not depart far from a mean date. With the northward sweep of the waves of bird life over the temperate and boreal portions of the continent comes the awakening of plant life, but the birds, to a marked extent, precede the unfolding of the flowers. This marvellous renewal of the life of the land after the long cold winter makes the budding and nesting spring-time the most joyous portion of the year, and one which exerts a marked effect on human thought and activities. The spring-time awakening in all nature is like a resurrection, and has apparently exerted an influence on the religions of the world.

The bird-waves referred to above are characterized at the start by the presence of great numbers of a single species, but as they progress, scattering occurs, and at the time of the greatest movements in the northern portion of the United States a large number of species frequently arrive at a given locality in a single night. At sunset the groves may be nearly tenantless and silent, while at sunrise they are alive with the flitting of wings of many colours, and the air pulsates with many different songs.

Judging from extended observations on migrations made in the Mississippi Valley, the definite waves of bird life which sweep northward with the spring-tide of temperature are in some instances 100 or 200 miles long and have a breadth of perhaps a score of miles. The distance between the waves varies with variations in the weather and perhaps other causes, and as they progress they apparently become less definite and at the north have yet to be recognised.

The migrations of the birds are performed principally at night. In the northern part of the United States during the hours of darkness in early spring, even when cloudiness prevails or the land is veiled in mist, the voices of geese may frequently be heard overhead, proving that unseen flocks are then winging their way northward. About the lighthouses along the coast and on the shores of the Great Lakes, when migration is in progress, dead birds are frequently found in considerable numbers and of various species. In these cases the birds are evidently attracted by the lights and killed on striking the windows that protect them. This occurs particularly on stormy or cloudy nights, when the birds fly low. Several of the larger species of birds, as the geese, ducks, cranes, etc., which are strong of wing, make long flights without resting. In many instances a single stage in a journey may include 500 or 600 miles. Most of the smaller birds, however, fly comparatively short distances between the pauses made for rest and food.

A species on reaching the northern portion of the route over which it usually migrates scatters, and the individuals mate, nests are built, and young reared. At the approach of cold weather reassemblage occurs, frequently great flocks being formed, and the southern movement begins. The southward migration is less conspicuous in most instances than the movement en masse of the birds in the spring, and so far as now seems to be recognised is not divided into definite waves.

While the winter habitat of most birds in the temperate and boreal portions of the continent is to the south of their summer homes, the annual migration is not in all cases great in amount. Some species move only a few hundred, or possibly a few score, miles. Even the winter residents make short migrations, dependent on weather conditions. The greater part of the migratory birds, however, pass the winter in the Gulf States, Mexico, the West Indies, and Central and South America. In some cases they go well to the south of the equator. The annual flight going and coming measured in a straight line, between the nesting place and the winter home, cannot be less in many instances than from 8,000 to 10,000 or 12,000 miles. An interesting fact in this connection is that certain species follow definite routes. The region moved over annually, if marked on a map, would resemble two open or partially opened fans, with their handles pointing towards each other and connected by a narrow band.

The causes of the annual migrations of birds have received much study and been the subject of much speculation. The general consensus of opinion in this connection seems to be that the birds are controlled largely by what we in our ignorance term instinct. The true beginning of the migration seems to be in the fall, when the birds are driven from their homes by cold or, perhaps more accurately in most cases, by scarcity of food. This, however, is not the whole story, since many species start southward before cold weather approaches and while food is yet abundant. Then, too, crippled individuals have been known to survive the winter in regions from which their summer companions have departed. Instinct, therefore, plays a part in even the fall migration, where at first glance sufficient physical reasons may seemingly be claimed for it. During the spring migration the birds are moved by a strong impulse to regain their breeding-grounds. Each species seems to have adapted itself to certain conditions of temperature, food, etc., through long ages of development, and acquired a subtle faculty of regaining the environment to which it is best adapted, as soon as the adverse conditions that caused it to leave its home are ameliorated. How a particular bird is enabled to return to the nest it built the year previous is not known. The study of the homing instinct of pigeons assists in this direction, however, and suggests that birds are endowed with something answering to a sixth sense-that is, a sense of direction or of orientation.

Spring-time Music.-The northward-flowing tide of life each spring brings to the temperate zone of North America a marvellous change not only in colour and movements, but in sound. This is the season of bird courtship and more than usual happiness among the feathered millions. From shore to shore of the continent a chorus more seductive than sirens' songs pulsates on the breezes.

The winter is characteristically a season of silence. The sounds heard at a distance from human habitations are mainly those produced by inanimate nature. The wind causes varied discords amid the bare branches of the deciduous trees or sings weird melodies in the pines. Strange muffled roars come from the frozen lakes, as the ice contracts and breaks during periods of excessive cold. The frost in tree trunks causes sharp explosions. The ice-covered streams are still except where cataracts interrupt their even flow. In the profound silence of a calm winter night the distant dismal howl of a wolf, the cry of an owl, or the bark of a fox alone reminds one that life still continues, but these animate sounds are far more frequently absent than present. With the coming of the spring there is a marvellous awakening and unfolding. The brooks, swollen to overflowing by the melting of the snow, make music as they run. The northward flight of the birds brings to every grove a chorus of song. A host of batrachians and reptiles bestir themselves after a long winter sleep and vociferously proclaim their presence. The insect world, with its unnumbered legions, takes wing. The air vibrates with millions of voices. The trees put forth their leaves, each a harp-string which responds to the touch of the fingers of the wind. The organ-notes of the thunder again startle the hibernating echoes. As the winter is the silent season, so the spring is the time of music.

One of the most charming of the many phases of nature's concert season is the matin songs of the birds. Ere the eastern sky along the New England coast becomes roseate with the first blush of morn, the twitter of birds may be heard amid the shadowy branches of the trees. Soon a thrush or a warbler awakens in full song, and is followed by a host of other voices, until the air pulsates with music. As the sun rises and his first level rays reveal the varied tints of the tree tops, the many-voiced chorus passes the height of its ecstasy and the music gradually subsides. But the glad tidings of the coming of the day are passed westward from grove to grove and from meadow to meadow, and a wave of song sweeps on ahead of the wave of light, induced by its coming. The song-wave spreads to the north and south and flows steadily westward over the forest-covered mountains, across the great central basin of the continent, breaking on the treeless plateaus into many streams which follow the grove-fringed rivers, passes through the depressions in the Rocky Mountains, and although weakened in the arid valleys beyond, is not checked. The larks there listen for its coming and pass the joyful message westward. The timid dwellers in the great forests of Oregon awaken at the magic sound and the lofty tree tops are made to thrill with the voices of unseen choirs while it is yet night in the silent aisles below. The onward rush of sound is not reflected or turned back by the lofty Cascades, but flows through their passes and only ceases when the sea-birds of the Pacific renew a note that was dropped on the distant Atlantic coast.

One of the most fascinating incidents in the life of the explorer in his lonely camps in the great forests or amid the solemn mountains is the coming of the wave of song in the spring and early summer-time which precedes and accompanies the rising of the sun.

The fascination of the field of study touched upon in this chapter invites an attempt to present an account of some of the more characteristic birds of North America, and to endeavour to convey to the reader some idea of the varied reptilian, fish, and invertebrate life of the continent, but the limitations of space prohibit such a review. Even the great problems dealing with the intimate relation that exists between geographical conditions and the distribution of animals cannot be given more attention than the suggestions already offered.

LITERATURE

Allen, J. A. The Geographical Distribution of Animals, in Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. iv, Washington, 1878, pp. 313-377; The Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals, in Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. iv, New York, 1892, pp. 199-243.

Heilprin, Angelo. The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals. International Scientific Series, London and New York, 1897.

Osborn, H. F. The Rise of the Mammalia in North America. New York, 1893.

Cope, E. D. Geographical Distribution. In the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1898, Washington, 1900, pp. 1199-1234.

Merriam, C. Hart. Life-Zones and Crop-Zones of the United States, United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 10, Washington, 1898; Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona, United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy [Bulletin] No. 3, Washington, 1890; The Geographical Distribution of Life in North America, in Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, vol. vii, 1892, pp. 1-64.

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