Chapter 8 No.8

Character and Conditions of Revolutionary Syndicalism

The history of the General Confederation of Labor as told in the preceding chapters has brought out in a general way the character of revolutionary syndicalism and the conditions which have influenced its rise and development. It remains now in this last chapter to emphasize the principal points and to strengthen them by a more complete analysis of facts and conditions.

It has been maintained throughout this work that revolutionary syndicalism was created by a bloc of revolutionary elements in the Confederation. This character of a bloc has been denied by many. Those hostile to the Confederation are anxious to create the impression that the latter is exclusively the creation and the tool of the anarchists. Others more or less impartial fail to acknowledge the part played in the movement by the non-anarchist elements. Some anarchists themselves are only too glad to be considered the creators of the movement and to maintain a view which is a tribute to their organizing ability and to their influence.

Many revolutionary syndicalists, however, protest against being considered anarchists. Some of them are active members of the Unified Socialist Party. Others do not belong to the Socialist party, but have never been connected with the Anarchists. They are revolutionary syndicalists, "pure and simple." And these two other elements are by no means less influential in the Confederation than the Anarchists.

The three elements enumerated have somewhat different ways of regarding revolutionary syndicalism. To the anarchists revolutionary syndicalism is but a partial application of anarchist ideas. M. Yvetot, secretary of the section of Bourses, said at the recent Congress of Toulouse (1910): "I am reproached with confusing syndicalism and anarchism. It is not my fault if anarchism and syndicalism have the same ends in view. The former pursues the integral emancipation of the individual; the latter the integral emancipation of the workingman. I find the whole of syndicalism in anarchism."[214]

To the revolutionary socialists in the Confederation syndicalism is the primary and fundamental form of revolutionary socialism. It does not exclude, however, other forms; on the contrary, it must be completed by the political organization of the Socialist party, because it has no answer of its own to many social problems.

The third group of revolutionary syndicalists regards revolutionary syndicalism as self-sufficing and independent of both anarchism and socialism. This group, like the first, emphasizes the fact that there is an irreconcilable antagonism between syndicalism and political socialism. "It is necessary," writes Jouhaux, secretary of the Confederation, "that the proletariat should know that between parliamentary socialism, which is tending more and more toward a simple democratization of existing social forms, and syndicalism, which pursues the aim of a complete social transformation, there is not only divergence of methods, but particularly divergence of aims."[215]

Those who consciously call themselves revolutionary syndicalists belong to one of the groups described, and the three groups constitute the bloc spoken of above. To understand revolutionary syndicalism means to understand this bloc of revolutionary elements, how it was made possible, why it is maintained, and what conditions have secured for it the leadership in the General Confederation of Labor.

It has been shown in the preceding chapters that since 1830 a considerable part of the French workingmen, the so-called "militant" workingmen, have always cherished the hope of a "complete" or "integral" emancipation which should free them from the wage-system and from the economic domination of the employer. The desire of independence had guided the life of the journeyman under the guild-system, and its birth under modern economic conditions is natural enough to need no explanation. But while under the guild-system this desire had an individualistic character, under the technical conditions of the present time it necessarily led to collectivist ideas. With the development of highly expensive means of production, only an insignificant number of workingmen could hope to become economically independent by individual action, and the only way to attain economic freedom and equality for all pointed to the collective appropriation of the means of production and to the collective management of industrial activities.

The insistence on economic freedom-in the sense indicated-runs through all the literature of the French Labor Movement. It is not only and not so much the inequality of wealth, the contrasts of distribution that stimulate the militant workingmen to their collectivist hopes, as it is the protest against the "arbitrariness" of the employer and the ideal of a "free workshop." To attain the latter is the main thing and forms the program of the General Confederation as formulated in the first clause of its statutes.

The sensitiveness to economic inferiority is increased in the French militant workingmen by the fact that in a country like France economic distinctions are combined with social distinctions. Owing to the traditions of the past, economic classes are separated by a number of other elements, in which intellectual, social and other influences combine and which transform the economic classes into social classes. The aspiration towards economic equality increases, therefore, in volume and becomes a striving after social equality.

The historical traditions of France combined with the impatience for emancipation explain the revolutionary spirit of the French socialist workingman. All who have come into contact with French life have convinced themselves of the power which the revolutionary traditions of the past exert over the people. The French workingman is brought up in the admiration of the men of the Great Revolution; his modern history is full of revolutionary secret societies, of insurrections, and of revolutionary struggles. He cherishes the memory of the Revolution of 1848, his indignation is aroused by the story of the Days of June, his pity and sympathy are stimulated by the events of the Commune. Looking backward into the history of the past century and a half, he can only get the feeling of political instability, and the conviction is strengthened in him that "his" revolution will come just as the revolution of the "Third-Estate" had come. Combined with the desire to attain the "integral" emancipation as soon as possible, these conditions engender in him the revolutionary spirit.[216]

The revolutionary spirit predisposes the socialist workingman to a skeptical attitude toward parliamentary action which rests on conciliation and on compromise and is slow in operation. He seeks for other methods which seem to promise quicker results. The methods themselves may change; they were insurrection once, they are now the general strike. But the end they serve remains the same: to keep up the hope of a speedy liberation.

The distrust of parliamentary methods has been strengthened in the French socialist workingman by another fact. The French workingmen have seen their political leaders rise to the very top, become Ministers and Premiers (e. g., Millerand, Viviani, Briand), and then turn against their "comrades" of old. The feeling has been thereby created in the socialist workingmen that parliamentary methods are merely a means to a brilliant career for individuals who know how to make use of them.

The mistrust of "politicians" finds some nourishment in the fact that the political leaders of the Socialist movement are generally the "intellectuals," between whom and the workingmen there is also some antagonism. The "intellectuals" are thrown out upon the social arena principally by the lower and middle bourgeoisie and generally enter the liberal professions. But whether lawyer, writer, doctor or teacher, the French "intellectual" sooner or later enters the field of "politics" which allures him by the vaster possibilities it seems to offer. In fact, the "intellectual" has always been a conspicuous figure in the history of French Socialism. As a socialist poet, Pierre Dupont, sang,

"Socialism has two wings,

The student and the workingman."

And as the socialist ideas have spread, the number of "intellectuals" in the socialist movement has been constantly increasing.

The "two wings" of the Socialists, however, cannot perfectly adapt themselves to one another. The "intellectual" generally lacks the "impatience for deliverance" which characterizes the socialist workingman. The "intellectual" is bound by more solid ties to the status quo; his intellectual preoccupations predispose him to a calmer view of things, to regard society as a slow evolutionary process. Besides, the "intellectual" takes pride in the fact that he supplies "the proletariat with fresh elements of enlightenment and progress"; he is inclined, therefore, to dominate the workingman as his "minor brother", and to advocate methods which secure his own predominant part in the movement. Parliamentary action is the field best adapted to his character and powers. The socialist workingman, on the other hand, protests against the tendencies of the "intellectual", particularly against the dominating impulses of the latter. He is anxious to limit the powers of his leaders, if possible, and to create such forms of organization as shall assure his own independence.

When the syndicats began to develop in France, the revolutionary workingmen seized upon them as a form of organization particularly adapted to their demands. The syndicat was an organization which could take up the ideal of social emancipation; in the general strike, which the syndicat seemed to carry within itself, there was a method of speedy liberation; the syndicat excluded the "intellectuals" and above all by its "direct action" it maintained and strengthened the revolutionary spirit and safeguarded the revolutionary ideal from the compromises and dangers to which politics and the parliamentary socialists subjected it.

These conditions: the hope of social emancipation, the impatience for deliverance, the revolutionary spirit, and the defiance of the "intellectuals" and of the "politicians," gave and continue to give life to revolutionary syndicalism. They brought into being the "revolutionary bloc" in the General Confederation of Labor and maintain it there. Of course, differences of temperament and shadings of opinion exist. On the one extreme are those who are most vehement in their propaganda and who combat the Socialist party; on the other, are the revolutionary socialists who are disposed to co-operate with the parliamentary socialists, but who want to have an independent organization to fall back upon in case of disagreement with the political party. But differing in details, the revolutionary elements agree in the main points and they stamp upon the Confederation the character which it bears and which is described in the terms "revolutionary syndicalism."

The opponents of the revolutionary syndicalists claim that the latter are followed only by a minority in the General Confederation and that they maintain their leadership by means of the existing system of representation and by other more or less arbitrary devices. This statement, however, cannot be proved in any satisfactory way.

The best way of obtaining the exact number of revolutionary syndicalists in the Confederation would seem to be by means of an analysis of the votes taken at the Congresses. This method, however, is defective for several reasons. In the first place, not all the syndicats adhering to the Confederation are represented at the Congresses. At the Congress of Bourges (1904), 1,178 syndicats out of 1,792 were represented; at the Congress of Amiens, 1,040 out of 2,399; at the Congress of Marseilles, 1,102 out of 2,586, and at the Congress of Toulouse, 1,390 out of 3,012. It is evident, therefore, that even if all the votes were taken unanimously, they would still express the opinion of less than half the syndicats of the Confederation.

In the second place, the votes of the Confederation being taken by syndicats, to get the exact figures it would be necessary to know how many syndicats in each federation are revolutionary or not, and what is the proportional strength of both tendencies in each syndicat. This is impossible in the present state of statistical information furnished by the Confederation.

At the Congress of Amiens, for instance, the vote approving the report of the Confederal Committee (Section of Federation) stood 815 against 106 (18 blanks). This vote is important, because to approve or to reject the report meant to approve or to reject the ideas by which the General Confederation is guided.

Now, an analysis of the vote at Amiens shows that while some organizations voted solidly for the Confederal Committee, none voted solidly against it and that the votes of many organizations were divided. But even the number of those represented by the unanimous vote of their syndicats cannot in the most cases be ascertained. For instance, the agricultural syndicats cast their 28 votes for the Confederal Committee; the report of the Confederal Committee gives the Federation of Agricultural Laborers 4,405 members; but the same report says that the Federation consisted of 106 syndicats; of these 106 syndicats only 28 were represented at the Congress, and how many members they represented there is no possibility of ascertaining. The same is true of those Federations in which the syndicats did not cast the same vote.

This difficulty is felt by those who try to prove by figures that the Confederation is dominated by a minority. M. Ch. Franck, for instance, calculates that at the Congress of Marseilles 46 organizations with 716 mandates representing 143,191 members obtained the majority for the statu quo against the proposition of proportional representation; while the minority consisted of 15 organizations with 379 mandates representing 145,440 members. In favor of the anti-militaristic resolution, he calculates further, 33 organizations with 670 mandates representing 114,491 members obtained the majority against 19 organizations with 406 mandates representing 126,540 members. But he is compelled to add immediately: "These figures have no absolute value, because we have taken each organization in its entirety, while in the same federation some syndicats have not voted with the majority"; he thinks that the proportion remains nevertheless the same because he did not take into consideration the divisions on each side.[217]

The last assumption, however, is arbitrary, because the syndicats dissenting on the one side may have been more numerous than those not voting with the majority on the other side; the whole calculation, besides, is fallacious, because it takes the figures of the federations in their entirety, while only a part of the syndicats composing them took part in the votes.

The attempt, therefore, to estimate the exact number of the revolutionary syndicalists in the Confederation must be given up for the present. The approximate estimate on either side can be given. According to M. Pawlowski,[218] 250,000 members of the Confederation (out of 400,000) repudiate the revolutionary doctrine; the revolutionary syndicalists, on the other hand, claim a majority of two-thirds for themselves. The impartial student must leave the question open.

It must be pointed out, however, that the system of representation which exists now in the Confederation affects both revolutionary and reformist syndicalists in a more or less equal degree. At the Congress of Amiens, for instance, the Fédération du Livre, with its 10,000 members, had 135 votes; the Railway Syndicat, with its 24,275 members, had only 36 votes; these two organizations were among the "reformists" who combated the Confederal Committee. On the other hand, the revolutionary Federation of Metallurgy had 84 votes for its 14,000 members, but the Federation of Marine, which is also revolutionary, disposed of six votes only for its 12,000 members. The revolutionary syndicalists, therefore, may be right in their assertion that proportional representation would not change the leadership of the Confederation. This belief is strengthened in them by the fact that in all so-called "reformist" organizations, as the Fédération du Livre, the Railway Syndicat, etc., there are strong and numerous revolutionary minorities.

It is often asserted that only the small syndicats, mostly belonging to the small trades, follow the revolutionary syndicalists. This assertion, however, is inexact. An examination of the syndicats which are considered revolutionary shows that some of them are very large and that others belong to the most centralized industries of France. For instance, the Federation of Building Trades is the most revolutionary organization in the Confederation; at the same time it is the most numerous, and its members pay the highest dues (after the Fédération du Livre) in France.[219] The revolutionary Federation of Metallurgy is also one of the large organizations in the Confederation and belongs to an industry which is one of the most centralized in France. The total horse-power of machines used in the metallurgic industries has increased from 175,070 in 1891 to 419,128 in 1906; the number of establishments has diminished from 4,642 in 1891 to 4,544 in 1906; that is, the total horse-power of machinery used in every industrial establishment has increased during this period from 38 to 92;[220] the number of workingmen per industrial establishment has also increased from 508 in 1896 to 697 in 1901 and to 711 in 1906. In fact the metallurgic industry occupies the second place after the mining industry which is the most centralized in France.[221]

A diversity of conditions prevails in the industries to which the other revolutionary organizations belong. On the other hand, the so-called reformist organizations, the Federation of Mines, the Fédération du Livre, the Federation of Employees, differ in many respects and are determined in their policy by many considerations and conditions which are peculiar to each one of them.

The influence of the revolutionary syndicalists, therefore, can be explained not by special technical conditions, but by general conditions which are economic, political and psychological. To bring out the relation of these conditions to the syndicalist doctrine it is necessary to analyze the latter into its constituent elements and to discuss them one by one.

The fundamental condition which determines the policy of "direct action" is the poverty of French syndicalism. Except the Fédération du Livre, only a very few federations pay a more or less regular strike benefit; the rest have barely means enough to provide for their administrative and organizing expenses and can not collect any strike funds worth mentioning. In 1908, for instance, there were 1,073 strikes; of these 837 were conducted by organized workingmen. Only in 46 strikes was regular assistance assured for the strikers, and in 36 cases only was the assistance given in money.[222] The French workingmen, therefore, are forced to fall back on other means during strikes. Quick action, intimidation, sabotage, are then suggested to them by their very situation and by their desire to win.

The lack of financial strength explains also the enthusiasm and the sentiments of general solidarity which characterize French strikes. An atmosphere of enthusiasm must be created in order to keep up the fighting spirit in the strikers. To the particular struggle in any one trade a wider and more general significance must be attributed; it must be interpreted as a partial manifestation of a more general class-struggle. In this way the determination to struggle on is strengthened in those who strike and a moral justification is created for an appeal to the solidarity of all workingmen. These appeals are made constantly during strikes. Subscription lists are kept in the Bourses du Travail, in the Confederal Committee on Strikes, and are opened in the workingmen's and socialist newspapers whenever any big strike occurs.

New means to make up for the lack of financial resources are constantly devised. Of these means two which have come into existence within recent years are the soupes communistes and the "exodus of children." The soupes communistes are organized by the Bourses du Travail and consist of meals distributed to those on strike. The soupes communistes permit the feeding of a comparatively large number of strikers at small expense. Distribution occurs at certain points. The workingmen, if they wish, may take their meals home. The last Conferences of the section of Bourses have discussed the question how to organize these soupes communistes more systematically and as cheaply as possible.

The "exodus of children" consists in sending away the children of the strikers to workingmen of other towns while the strike is going on. It has been used during several strikes and attracted widespread attention. The "exodus of children" relieves the strikers at home and creates sympathy for them over the country at large.

Financial weakness has also led French syndicats in recent years to reconsider the question of co-operation. Various federations have expressed themselves at their federal congresses in favor of "syndicalist co-operatives" in which all associates are at the same time members of the syndicat and organized on a communist basis. The main argument brought forward in favor of such co-operatives is the support they could furnish to workingmen on strike.

The poverty of the French syndicats is the result of the reluctance of the French workingmen to pay high dues. In the Fédération du Livre, which has the highest dues, every member pays a little over two francs a month. In other federations the dues are lower, coming down in some organizations to 10 centimes a month. In recent years there has been a general tendency in all federations to increase dues, but the efforts of the syndicalist functionaries in this direction have met with but slow and partial success.

The reluctance to high dues is in part the result of the comparatively low wages which prevail in France. Another factor is the psychology of the French workingman. "Our impulsive and rebellious (frondeur) temperament," wrote the Commission which organized the Congress of Montpellier, "does not lend itself to high dues, and if we are always ready to painful sacrifices of another nature, we have not yet been able to understand the enormous advantages which would follow from strong syndicalist treasuries maintained by higher assessments."[223] The French workingmen are conscious of their peculiar traits, and the literature of the syndicalist movement is full of both jeremiads and panegyrics with regard to these traits, according to the speaker and to the circumstances. The French workingmen recognize that they lack method, persistence and foresight, while they are sensitive, impulsive and combative.[224]

The result of this psychology is not only poor syndicats, but syndicats weak in other respects. Many syndicats are but loosely held together, are easily dissolved and are composed of a more or less variable and shifting membership. The instability is increased of course by the absence of benevolent features in the syndicats. The Fédération du Livre alone pays sick and other benefits.

The weakness of the syndicats predisposes the French workingmen to more and more generalized forms of struggle. Syndicats on strike impelled by the desire to increase their forces try to involve as many trades and workingmen as possible and to enhance their own chances by enlarging the field of struggle. This is why such general movements, as the movement for an eight-hour day in 1906, described in the preceding chapter, are advocated by the syndicats. The latter feel that in order to gain any important demand they must be backed by as large a number of workingmen as possible. But in view of their weakness, the syndicats can start a large movement only by stirring up the country, by formulating some general demand which appeals to all workingmen. The same conditions explain in part the favor which the idea of the general strike has found in the syndicats.

Such forms of struggle must necessarily bring the syndicats into conflict with the State, particularly in France where the State is highly centralized and assumes so many functions. With a people so impulsive as the French, the intervention of the forces of the State in the economic struggles must inevitably lead to collisions of a more or less serious character. The result is a feeling of bitterness in the workingmen towards the army, the police and the government in general. The ground is thus prepared for anti-militaristic, anti-State and anti-patriotic ideas.

The organized workingmen are a minority of the working-class. Still they must act as if they were the majority or the entirety of the workingmen. The contradiction must be smoothed over by some explanation, and the theory of the "conscious minority" arises to meet the situation. The weaker the syndicats and the more often they are exposed to the danger of dissolution the greater the necessity of the theory. A disorganized syndicat generally leaves behind a handful of militant workingmen determined to keep up the organization. The theory of the "conscious minority" is both a stimulus to and a justification for the activities of these persistent "militants."

To the conditions described the French love of theory, of high-sounding phrases, and of idealistic formulas must be added. For a Frenchman it is not sufficient to act under necessity: the act must be generalized into a principle, the principles systematized, and the system of theory compressed into concise and catching formulas. And once abstracted, systematized and formulated, the ideas become a distinct force exerting an influence in the same direction as the conditions to which they correspond.

When all this is taken into account, it is easier to understand the influence of the revolutionary syndicalists. It is insufficient to explain their leadership by clever machinations of the Confederal Committee, as M. Mermeix and many others do. It is quite true that the Confederal Committee tries to maintain its power by all means possible. It sends out delegates to Federal Congresses, on conference tours over the country, to assist workingmen on strikes, etc. In most cases it sends only men who represent the revolutionary ideas of the Committee and who, therefore, strengthen the influence of the latter by word and deed. It is also true that in most Bourses du Travail the secretaries are revolutionary and that they help to consolidate the influence of the Confederal Committee. But these secretaries have not usurped their power. They are elected because they have come to the front as speakers, writers, organizers, strike-leaders, etc. And they could come to the front only because conditions were such as to make their ideas and services helpful.

Whatever one's attitude to the Confederation, one must acknowledge the results it has achieved. The strike statistics of France, given in the following table, show the following facts:

Period Per cent of strikes

which failed Per cent of strikers

who lost their strikes

1890-1899 44.61 38.63

1891-1900 43.86 34.17

1892-1901 42.69 35.42

1893-1902 42.48 31.75

1894-1903 42.13 26.98

1895-1904 40.24 25.09

1896-1905 39.07 23.76

1897-1906 38.05 25.91

1898-1907 38.14 25.37

1899-1908 35.79 25.83

Of course, these results can not be attributed entirely to the action of the Confederation. On the other hand, the influence of the Confederation on the improvement of general conditions of employment, on social legislation, etc., is undeniable. "In all branches of human activity," says M. Pawlowski, "wages have risen with a disconcerting and disquieting rapidity."[225] The agitation for the eight-hour day and the rising of 1906 hastened the vote on the weekly rest, induced the government to consider the application of the ten-hour day, popularized the practice of the "English week," etc.[226]

Whether the same or better results could have been obtained by "reformist" methods, is not a question to be considered, because in most cases the syndicats have no choice. A strike once begun, the character of the struggle is determined by conditions which exist and not by any that would be desirable. This is proved by the fact that very often the so-called "reformist" syndicats carry on their struggles in the same way and by the same methods as do the revolutionary ones.

The comparative influence of the Confederation explains the fact why the "reformists" do not leave the organization, though they are bitter in their opposition to the revolutionists. The "reformists" feel that they would thereby lose a support which is of value to them. Besides, in many cases such an act would lead to divisions within the reformist federations, all of which, as already indicated, contain considerable revolutionary minorities.

The revolutionary syndicalists, however, are in their turn compelled to make concessions to those exigences of the labor movement which have nothing to do with revolutionary ends. Of course, the revolutionary syndicalists are workingmen and they are interested in the immediate improvement of economic conditions. But there can be little doubt that the leaders and the more conscious and pronounced revolutionary syndicalists are mainly interested in their revolutionary ideal, in the abolition of capitalism and of the wage-system. The struggles for higher wages, shorter hours, etc., are a necessity which they must make a virtue of while awaiting the hoped-for final struggle. And when they theorize about the continuity of the struggles of to-day with the great struggles of to-morrow, when they interpret their every-day activities as part of a continuous social warfare, they are merely creating a theory which in its turn justifies their practice and preserves their revolutionary fire from extinction.

But theorizing does not essentially change the character of all syndicalist activities. The Confederal Committee must attend to the administrative and other questions, such as the questions of viaticum, of the label, etc. The necessities of the syndical movement often lead the members of the Confederal Committee into the antechambers of Parliament or into the private rooms of the Ministers whose assistance is solicited. The most revolutionary federations can not help entering into negotiations with employers for the settlement of strikes. In practice, therefore, the distinction between "revolutionary" and "reformist" syndicalists is often obscured, because both act as they must and not as they would.[227]

This must not be interpreted to mean that there is any conscious hypocrisy or undue personal interest on the part of the leaders of the revolutionary syndicalists. On the contrary, the most bitter opponents of the Confederation must admit that the reverse is true. "However one may judge their propaganda," says M. Mermeix, "he is obliged to acknowledge the disinterestedness of the libertarians who lead the syndicalist movement. They do not work for money...."[228] There is also no field in the Confederation for political ambition. Still the movement has its demands which require suppleness and pliability on the part of the leaders and which make impossible the rigid application of principles.

On the other hand, the revolutionary syndicalists have in the syndicats a tremendous force for their revolutionary ends. The close relation of syndical life to all political and economic problems gives the Confederal Committee the opportunity to participate in all questions of interest. The high cost of living, the danger of a war, the legislative policy of the government, troubles among the wine-growers, any public question, indeed, is the occasion for the intervention of the Confederal Committee. The latter appears, then, also as a revolutionary organization which is always ready to criticise, to discredit and to attack the government, and which is openly pursuing the overthrow of existing institutions in France. And when one keeps in mind the indefatigable anti-militaristic and anti-patriotic propaganda carried on by the Bourses du Travail all over the country, the revolutionary character of the Confederation may be fully appreciated.

What is the future that may be predicted for the General Confederation of Labor? Will the synthesis of revolutionism and of unionism that has been achieved in it continue more or less stable until the "final" triumph of the revolutionary syndicalists? Or will the latter be overpowered by the "reformist" elements who will impress their ideas on the Confederation and who will change the character of French syndicalism?

These questions cannot at present be answered. The movement is so young that no clear tendencies either way can be discerned. The two possibilities, however, may be considered in connection with the conditions that would be required to transform them into realities.

Those who predict a change in the character of French syndicalism generally have the history of English Trades Unionism in mind. They compare revolutionary syndicalism to the revolutionary period of English Trades Unionism and think of the change that came about in the latter in the third quarter of the past century. But the comparison is of little value, because the conditions of France are different from those of England, and because the international economic situation to-day is very different from what it was fifty years ago.

It is probable that if the French syndicats should develop into large and strong unions, highly centralized and provided with large treasuries, other ideas and methods would prevail in the syndicalist movement. But this change is dependent on a change in the economic life of France. France must cease to be "the banker of Europe," must cease to let other countries use its piled-up millions[229] for the development of their natural resources and industry, and must devote itself to the intensification of its own industrial activities. Such a change could bring about greater productivity, higher wages, and a higher concentration of the workingmen of the country. This change in conditions of life might result in a modification of the psychology of the French workingmen, though how rapid and how thorough-going such a process could be is a matter of conjecture. But whether France will or can follow the example of England or of Germany, in view of its natural resources and of the situation of the international market, it does not seem possible to say.[230] Besides, to change completely the character of French syndicalism, it would be necessary to wipe out the political history of France and its revolutionary traditions.

On the other hand, the triumph of the revolutionary syndicalists presupposes a total readjustment of groups and of interests. The Confederation counts now about 600,000 members. Official statistics count over 1,000,000 organized workingmen in France. But it must be remembered that the federations underestimate their numbers for the Confederation in order to pay less, while they exaggerate their numbers for the Annuaire Statistique in order to appear more formidable. The Confederation, besides, for various reasons rejects a number of organizations which desire to join it. It may be safe to say, therefore, that the Confederation brings under its influence the greater part of the organized workingmen of France.

But the total number of workingmen in France, according to the Census of 1906, is about 10,000,000, of which about 5,000,000 are employed in industry and in transportation. The numbers of independent producers in industry, commerce, and agriculture is about 9,000,000, of which about 2,000,000 are petits patrons. Over a million and a half persons are engaged in the liberal professions and in the public services.[231]

Among the latter the revolutionary syndicalists have met with success in recent years. The ideas of revolutionary syndicalism have gained adherents among the employees of the Post Office, Telegraph and Telephone, and among the teachers of the public schools. The recent Congresses of the teachers have declared themselves ready to collaborate with the workingmen for the realization of their ideal society. The following motion adopted by the recent Congress of Nantes, at which 500 delegates were present, is very characteristic: "The professional associations of teachers (men and women), employees of the State, of the Departments and of the Communes," reads the motion, "assembled in the Bourses du Travail, declare their sympathy for the working-class, declare that the best form of professional action is the syndical form; express their will to work together with the workingmen's organizations for the realization of the Social Republic."[232]

Also among the industrial and commercial middle classes there are some who look with favor on syndicalism. The French middle classes have for the last quarter of a century tried to organize themselves for resistance against the "financial feudalism" from which they suffer. Several organizations have been formed among the small merchants and masters, and in 1908 the "Association for the Defense of the Middle Classes" was constituted. The president of this Association, M. Colrat, wrote: "The ideas of the bourgeois syndicalism on the future are the same as those of the workingmen's syndicalism.... Far from contradicting one another, the syndicalism of the middle classes and the syndicalism of the working-classes reinforce each other in many respects, and notwithstanding many vexations, they lead to a state of relative equilibrium by a certain equality of opposing forces."[233] In the struggle against the big capitalists the leaders of the middle classes appear to be ready to form an alliance with the working-class. There can be little doubt, however, that the middle classes in general are opposed to the revolutionary ideals of the syndicalists. To succeed, the revolutionary syndicalists must bring about a change in the attitude of these classes, for the history of France has shown that the fear of "Communism" may throw the middle classes into the arms of a Caesar.

Whatever possibility may become a reality, France seems destined to go through a series of more or less serious struggles. Hampered by the elements which hark back to the past and which have not yet lost all importance, disorganized by the revolutionists who look forward to the future for the realization of their ideal, the Republic of France is still lacking the stability which could save her from upheavals and from historical surprises. The highly centralized form of government and the dominating position which Paris still holds in the life of France make such surprises easier and more tempting than would otherwise be the case. The process of social readjustment which is going on all over the world at present, therefore, must lead in France to a more or less catastrophic collision of the discordant elements which her political and economic history have brought into existence.

The struggle has already begun. The government of the Republic is determined to put an end to the revolutionary activities of the syndicalists. It is urged on by all those who believe that only the weakness of the Government has been the cause of the strength of the Syndicalists. On the other hand, the Syndicalists are determined to fight their battle to the end. What the outcome may be is hidden in the mystery of the future. Qui vivra-verra.

* * *

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] The term "socialist" is here used in a wide sense to include all varieties, even communistic anarchism.

[2] Les Associations Professionelles Ouvrières, Office du Travail (Paris, 1899), vol. i, p. 7.

[3] Annuaire Statistique.

[4] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 8.

[5] H. Lagardelle, L'évolution des Syndicats Ouvriers en France (Paris, 1901), p. 13.

[6] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, pp. 11-12.

[7] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, pp. 13-14.

[8] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 14.

[9] The obligation of the livret was abolished in 1890. G. Weill, Histoire du Movement Social en France (Paris, 1904), p. 332.

[10] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, pp. 18-19.

[11] Ibid., pp. 19-20, and p. 26.

[12] M. Du Cellier, Histoire des Classes Laborieuses en France (Paris, 1860), p. 362.

[13] Octave Festy, Le Movement Ouvrier au Début de la Monarchie de Juillet, passim.

[14] Octave Festy, Le Movement Ouvrier au Début de la Monarchie de France (Paris, 1900), vol. i, pp. 600 et seq.

[15] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 95.

[16] Maxime Leroy, Syndicats et Services Publics (Paris, 1909), p. 12.

[17] On the compagnonnage see, J. Connay, Le Compagnonnage, 1909; E. Martin St. Leon, Le Compagnonnage, 1901; Agricol Perdiguier, Le Livre du Compagnonnage, 1841.

[18] Les Assoc. Profess., vol. i, p. 193.

[19] Ibid., p. 199.

[20] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i. pp. 201-203.

[21] Ibid., vol. i, p. 204.

[22] Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i, p. 204.

[23] Ibid., pp. 205-6.

[24] On the history of French socialism: R. T. Ely, French and German Socialism (1878); Th. Kirkup, A History of Socialism (1906); G. Isambert, Les Idées Socialistes en France (1905); P. Louis, Histoire du Socialisme Fran?ais (1901).

[25] Georges Renard, La République de 1848.

[26] Albert Thomas, Le Second Empire (Paris, 1907).

[27] G. Weill, op. cit., pp. 63-65.

[28] Commission Ouvrière de 1867, Recueil des Procés-Verbaux, vol. i, p. 28.

[29] Lagardelle, évolution des Syndicats, pp. 218-9.

[30] Commission Ouvrière de 1867, vol. i, p. 28.

[31] P. Hubert-Valleroux, La Co-opération (Paris, 1904), pp. 14-17.

[32] P. Hubert-Valleroux, op. cit., p. 16.

[33] P. J. Proudhon, De la Capacité Politique des Classes Ouvrières (Paris, 1865), p. 59.

[34] A. Thomas, Le Second Empire, p. 332.

[35] A. Thomas, op. cit., p. 332.

[36] E. E. Fribourg, L'Association Internationale des Travailleurs (Paris, 1871).

[37] A. Thomas, op. cit., p. 363.

[38] Ibid., p. 358.

[39] James Guillaume, L'Internationale, Documents et Souvenirs (Paris, 1905), vol. i, p. 205.

[40] A. Thomas, op. cit., p. 352.

[41] Barberet was afterwards appointed chief of the Bureau of Trade Unions, which was constituted as part of the Dept. of the Interior.

[42] J. Barberet, Monographies Professionelles (Paris, 1886), vol. i, p. 16.

[43] Barberet, op. cit., pp. 20-25.

[44] Fernand Pelloutier, Histoire des Bourses du Travail (Paris, 1902), p. 35.

[45] Séances du Congrès Ouvrier de France, Session de 1876, p. 43.

[46] Séances du Congrès Ouvrier, 1876 (Paris, 1877), p. 9.

[47] Afterward one of the active members of the Office du Travail.

[48] Assoc. Profess., vol. i, p. 243.

[49] Terrail-Mermeix, La France Socialiste (Paris, 1886), p. 51.

[50] L'égalité, 18 Nov., 1877.

[51] Terrail-Mermeix, op. cit., p. 98.

[52] Leon Blum, Les Congrès Ouvriers et Socialistes Fran?ais (Paris, 1901), pp. 33-4.

[53] Ibid., p. 36.

[54] Leon de Seilhac, Les Congrès Ouvriers en France (Paris, 1899), p. 47.

[55] Pourquoi Guesde n'est-il pas anarchiste? p. 6.

[56] On the anarchist theory, the works of Bakounin, Kropotkin, Reclus and J. Grave should be consulted; on anarchism in France see Dubois, Le Péril anarchiste; Garin, l'Anarchie; also various periodicals, particularly, Le Révolte and Les Temps Nouveaux.

[57] John Labusquière, La Troisième République (Paris), p. 257.

[58] L'égalité, 30 June, 1880.

[59] In socialist writings this transition period is always spoken of as the "Dictatorship of the Proletariat."

[60] Jules Guesde, Le Socialisme au jour le jour (Paris, 1899), p. 268.

[61] Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Le Programme du Parti Ouvrier, 4th edition (Paris, 1897), p. 32.

[62] Le Programme du Parti Ouvrier, p. 52.

[63] Le Programme du Parti Ouvrier, p. 30.

[64] L. Blum, op. cit., p. 75.

[65] On the socialist groups of this period see Leon de Seilhac, Le Monde Socialiste (Paris, 1896).

[66] Seilhac, Les Congrès Ouvriers, p. 124.

[67] Blum, op. cit., p. 93.

[68] Séances du Congrès Ouvrier, session de 1886, pp. 18-19.

[69] Congrès National des Syndicats Ouvriers, Compte Rendu, pp. 344-5.

[70] Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 60.

[71] Charles Franck, Les Bourses du Travail et la Confédération Générale du Travail (Paris, 1910), p. 17.

[72] G. de Molinari, Les Bourses du Travail (Paris, 1893), p. 257.

[73] Molinari, op. cit., p. 280.

[74] Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 64.

[75] Seilhac, Les Congrès Ouvriers, p. 230.

[76] B. & S. Webb, History of Trade Unionism, pp. 118-122.

[77] Dr. E. Georgi, Theorie und Praxis des Generalstreiks in der modernen Arbeiterbewegung (Jena, 1908).

[78] H. Lagardelle, La Grève Générale et le Socialisme (Paris, 1905), p. 42.

[79] L. Blum, op. cit., pp. 129, 137.

[80] Le Congrès National des Syndicats, Compte Rendu, pp. 45 et seq.

[81] To meet this criticism the Allemanists argued that the militant workingmen could have "reserves" accumulated little by little which would allow them to await for some time the results of the general strike.

[82] G. Deville, Principes Socialistes (Paris, 1896), pp. 191-201.

[83] Seilhac, Les Congrès Ouvriers, p. 286.

[84] Annuaire Statistique.

[85] Seilhac, Congrès Ouvriers, p. 231.

[86] On the Bourses du Travail see, F. Pelloutier, Histoire des Bourses du Travail, 1902; Ch. Franck, Les Bourses du Travail et la Confédération Générale du Travail, 1910; P. Delesalle, Les Bourses du Travail et la C. G. T. (Paris, 1910).

[87] Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 87-88.

[88] Annuaire Statistique.

[89] Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 121-2.

[90] There were 23 in 1907. Franck, op. cit., pp. 127-8.

[91] On the life of Pelloutier see Maurice Pelloutier, F. Pelloutier. Sa Vie, son Oeuvre (Paris, 1911).

[92] P. Delesalle, Temps Nouveaux, 23 Mars, 1901.

[93] Seilhac, Congrès Ouvriers, p. 272.

[94] The anarchists in France call themselves libertaires.

[95] Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 151.

[96] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 77.

[97] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 154.

[98] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 170-1.

[99] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 160.

[100] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 163.

[101] F. Pelloutier, op. cit., pp. 163-4.

[102] Seilhac, Congrès Ouvriers, p. 317.

[103] The changes in the form of organization which have been made since 1902 are in harmony with the fundamental ideas of the constitution adopted in 1902.

[104] XI Congrès National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 35.

[105] Typographical Union.

[106] Seilhac, p. 328.

[107] Seilhac, Congrès Ouvriers, p. 325; Ch. Franck, op. cit., p. 323.

[108] Seilhac, Congrès Ouvriers, pp. 331-2.

[109] Ch. Franck, op. cit., pp. 226-7.

[110] Sabotage means the obstruction in all possible ways of the regular process of production; cf. ch. v.

[111] E. Pouget, Le Sabotage (Paris, 1910), pp. 15-16.

[112] X Congrès National Corporatif (IV de la C. G. T.), Rennes, 1898, p. 77.

[113] X Congrès National Corporatif (Rennes, 1898), p. 334.

[114] Ibid., p. 334.

[115] X Congrès National Corporatif (Rennes, 1898), p. 302.

[116] XI Congrès National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 198.

[117] Ibid., p. 113.

[118] XI Congrès National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 110.

[119] XI Congrès National Corporatif (Paris, 1900), p. 205.

[120] The growth of syndicats in France since 1895 is shown in the following table:

Year Syndicats Members

1895 2,163 419,781

1896 2,243 422,777

1898 2,324 437,793

1899 2,361 419,761

1900 2,685 492,647

1901 3,287 588,832

[121] XII Congrès National Corporatif (Lyons, 1901), p. 170.

[122] Ibid., pp. 177-8.

[123] Ibid., p. 179.

[124] See the "Circulaire" in G. Severac, Guide Pratique des Syndicats Professionnels (Paris, 1908), pp. 125-136.

[125] G. Hanoteaux, Modern France (tr. by J. C. Tarver, New York, 1903-09), vol. ii, p. 181.

[126] A. Lavy, L'Oeuvre de Millerand (Paris, 1902), p. 2.

[127] A. Lavy, op. cit., p. 66.

[128] Ibid., p. 79.

[129] A. Lavy, op. cit., p. 80.

[130] Only the most important measures of M. Millerand are mentioned; they do not by any means exhaust his legislative activities during this period.

[131] XII Congrès National Corporatif (VI de la C. G. T.), Lyons, 1901, p. 110.

[132] Ibid., p. 114.

[133] Ibid., p. 210.

[134] Ibid., p. 112.

[135] Ibid., p. 218.

[136] Ibid., p. 110.

[137] XI Congrès National Corporatif, p. 114.

[138] Ibid., p. 119.

[139] A. Hamon, Le Socialisme et le Congrès de Londres (Paris, 1897), p. 11.

[140] L. Blum, Congrès Ouvriers et Socialistes, p. 146.

[141] Chambre des Deputés, Débats Parlementaires; July 11, 1895; November 22, 1895.

[142] Deville, Principes Socialistes.

[143] A. Millerand, Le Socialisme Réformiste Fran?ais (Paris, 1903), pp. 31-32.

[144] Le Mouvement Socialiste, Jan., 1899.

[145] XII Congrès Corporatif (Lyons, 1901), p. 151.

[146] Congrès Général des Organisations Socialistes (Paris, 1899), p. 152.

[147] Ibid., p. 155.

[148] To understand the change in the attitude of the anarchists towards the syndicats, the disillusioning effect of their terroristic campaign from 1890 to 1894, during which the exploits of Ravachole, Henri, Casiers, and others took place, must also be considered.

[149] XI Congrès Corporatif, (Lyons, 1901), p. 29.

[150] Ibid., p. 14.

[151] Ibid., p. 69.

[152] An intermediate form of sabotage is that known as sabotage à bouche ouverte (sabotage of the open mouth). It consists in the disclosure of conditions generally withheld from the public, such as conditions in hotel-kitchens and restaurants, methods of weighing and measuring in stores, practices followed by druggists, frauds resorted to by contractors and builders, etc.

[153] The fundamental principle of democracy is that all citizens are equal before the law and that there are no classes in the state.

[154] G. Sorel, L'Avenir Socialiste des Syndicats (Paris, 1901), p. 3.

[155] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence (Paris, 1910), p. 249.

[156] Ibid., p. 246.

[157] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence (Paris, 1910), p. 249.

[158] G. Sorel, L'Avenir Socialiste des Syndicats, pp. 3-4.

[159] Ibid., p. 39.

[160] Ibid., p. 4.

[161] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence, pp. 289-5.

[162] Ibid., p. 42.

[163] G. Sorel, Preface to Pelloutier's Histoire des Bourses du Travail.

[164] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence, p. 179.

[165] G. Sorel, Illusions du Progrès (Paris, 1911), p. 10.

[166] G. Sorel, Illusions du Progrès, p. 59.

[167] Ibid., p. 276.

[168] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence, pp. 256-7.

[169] Ibid., p. 150.

[170] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence, p. 8.

[171] Ibid., p. 12.

[172] Ibid., p. 13.

[173] G. Sorel, L'Avenir Socialiste des Syndicats, p. 54.

[174] G. Sorel, Réflexions sur la Violence, pp. 201-2.

[175] H. Lagardelle, Le Socialisme Ouvrier (Paris, 1911).

[176] See articles of Lagardelle, G. Weil and Cornelissen in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 1907-1910.

[177] Le Mouvement Socialiste (May, 1908), p. 390.

[178] Le Mouvement Socialiste (March, 1911), pp. 184-5.

[179] J. Guillaume, L'Internationale, vols. i-iii; also Report of 7th Congress of "International" in Brussels in 1874.

[180] In 1906 the statutes were so modified as to admit no new trade federations. This was a decided step in the direction of the industrial form of organization.

[181] At the last congress of the Confederation which was held in Havre in September, 1912, a resolution was passed that the Bourses du Travail in each Department of France should form Departmental Unions (Unions Departmentales), and that on January 1, 1914, these Departmental Unions should take the place of the Bourses du Travail in the organization of the Confederation. The resolution has not yet been fully carried into effect, and the process of reorganization is still going on. When it is completed, the General Confederation of Labor will emerge with a more compact and centralized form of organization embracing Federations of industry, on the one hand, and Departmental Unions, on the other. The single Bourses will not disappear, and their functions will not be curtailed; but they will henceforth form the constituent elements of the more comprehensive Departmental Unions and will have no individual representation in the Confederal Committee. The reorganization was made necessary by the rapid growth of Bourses du Travail, the number of which far outstripped the number of Federations of industry and which thus controlled the policies of the Confederal Committee. The number of the Departmental Unions can not exceed eighty-seven (87), as there are but eighty-seven political subdivisions in France called Departments.

[182] E. Pouget, Le Confédération Générale du Travail (Paris, 1908), p. 16.

[183] From Jan. 1, 1914, called the "Section of the Federation of Departmental Unions."

[184] Increased in 1909 to 60 centimes. For further increase see page 195.

[185] When the reorganization is completed, this section will consist of one delegate from each Departmental Union, who will form the Comité des Unions Departmentales. See note 181 on page 162.

[186] Changed in 1909 to five centimes for each member per year.

[187] Executive Committee.

[188] Senator Paul Straus in La Grande Revue (Feb., 1914), pp. 320 et seq.

[189] Journal des Débats (Nov. 6, 1903), p. 865.

[190] Journal des économistes (November, 1903), p. 315.

[191] XIV Congrès National Corporatif (Bourges, 1904), p. 8.

[192] XIV Congrès Corporatif (Bourges, 1904), pp. 95-6.

[193] Mouvement Socialiste (Nov., 1904), p. 61.

[194] A. Keufer, Le Mouvement Socialiste (Nov., 1904), p. 93.

[195] XIV Congrès Corporatif (Bourges, 1904), pp. 205-6.

[196] Ibid., p. 207.

[197] Journal des Débats (27 April, 1906), p. 769.

[198] Statistique des Grèves, 1893-1908.

[199] XV Congrès National Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), p. 103.

[200] Statistique des Grèves, 1906, pp. 774 et seq.

[201] XV Congrès Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), p. 3.

[202] XV Congrès Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), pp. 135-6.

[203] Ibid., p. 134.

[204] Ibid., p. 165.

[205] XIV Congrès Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), pp. 154-157.

[206] XV Congrès Corporatif (Amiens, 1906), p. 167.

[207] XVI Congrès National Corporatif, p. 213.

[208] M. Guérard, once revolutionary, had become moderate.

[209] G. Weill, Histoire du Mouvement Social du France, 386.

[210] See page 183.

[211] The first two conferences were held at Balberstadt (1900) and at Stuttgart (1902).

[212] An account of the Paris conference is given in Mr. Gompers' Labor in Europe and America (New York, 1910).

[213] These figures are for 1911.

[214] La Vie Ouvrière, 20 Oct., 1910, p. 483; XVII Congrès National Corporatif (Toulouse, 1910), p. 226.

[215] L. Jouhaux, Le Terrassier, 20 June, 1911.

[216] On the peculiar character of French history see Adams, Growth of the French Nation; Berry, France since Waterloo; Barrett Wendell, France of To-day.

[217] Op. cit., pp. 345-6.

[218] A. Pawlowski, La Confédération Générale du Travail (Paris, 1910), p. 51.

[219] Mouvement Socialiste, May, 1911.

[220] E. Thery, Les Progrès économiques de la France (Paris, 1909), p. 181.

[221] Journal des économistes, Jan., 1911, p. 133.

[222] Statistique des Grèves, 1909, vi-vii.

[223] XIII Congrès National Corporatif, 1902, pp. 30-31.

[224] X Congrès National Corporatif, p. 203; XII Congrès National Corporatif, pp. 15, 29, 44.

[225] A. Pawlowski, La Confédération Générale du Travail, p. 130.

[226] Ibid., p. 123.

[227] This is admitted by both sides. See reports of last Congress held at Toulouse (1910), p. 111.

[228] Terrail-Mermeix, La Syndicalisme contre le Socialisme (Paris, 1907), p. 231.

[229] It is estimated that France has about 40,000,000,000 francs invested in foreign countries.

[230] See Preface to Second Edition.

[231] The active population in 1906 was over 20,000,000, out of a total population of over 39,000,000. Journal des économistes, Jan., 1911.

[232] L'Humanité, August 8, 1911.

[233] M. Colrat, Vers l'équilibre social, quoted by Mr. J. L. Puecht, "Le Mouvement des Classes Moyennes," in La Grande Revue, Dec., 1910.

[Transcriber's notes:

List of corrected printers' errors:

pages 14, 15, 48, 132, 145, 183 and 189 "working class" changed to "working-class"

page 5 "devolpment" changed to "development" ("it is also a development of the French Labor Movement.")

page 13 "co?perative" changed to "co-operative" ("Revolution of 1848 and the co-operative movement") and ("Failure of co-operative central bank in 1868")

page 13 "co?peration" changed to "co-operation" ("-Syndicats and co-operation-")

page 16 - added ("French workingmen-Causes of the")

page 30 "Perdigiuer" changed to "Perdiguier" ("Agricol Perdiguier, Le Livre du Compagnonnage, 1841.")

page 32 "resistance" change to "résistance" ("was the société de résistance")

page 32 "." replaced with "," ("Les Associations Professionelles, vol. i. pp. 201-203.")

page 35 "presecuted" changed to "persecuted" ("organizations were persecuted;")

page 40 "C?opération" changed to "Co-opération" ("La Co-opération (Paris, 1904)")

page 51 "bourgois" changed to "bourgeois" ("separation which existed between bourgeois and workingmen")

page 52 footnote reference in text altered, referred to wrong footnote

page 56 "hemmoroids" changed to "hemorrhoids" (" which it leaves to the hemorrhoids of bourgeois of every stamp)

page 62 "Counseil" changed to "Conseil" ("(the Conseil fédéral national)")

page 65 "Arbeiter-bewegung" changed to "Arbeiterbewegung" ("Theorie und Praxis des Generalstreiks in der modernen Arbeiterbewegung")

page 68 missing "not" added ("they argued that the general strike could not be successful")

page 71 "employes" changed to "employees" ("of workingmen and of employees of both sexes")

page 71 missing " added ("(Parti syndical politicien)."")

page 75 missing "(" added ("Bourses du Travail (1896)")

page 80 "Nouveoux" changed to "Nouveaux" ("Temps Nouveaux, 23 Mars, 1901.")

page 93 "Alemanists" changed to "Allemanists" ("defended by Allemanists and anarchists,")

page 93 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("M. Guérard who defended the idea before the Congress. Said M. Guérard:")

page 94 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("And M. Guérard, applauded by the audience,")

page 96 "recomended" changed to "recommended" ("To this end the report recommended")

page 97 "sub-committes" changed to "sub-committees" ("Only twenty Bourses formed sub-committees.")

page 98 "Congès" changed to "Congrès" ("X Congrès National Corporatif")

page 101 removed " ("the completest possible emancipation.")

page 103 "posesses" changed to "possess" ("the workingmen who possess nothing.")

page 104 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("The secretary of the Confederation, M. Guérard,")

page 104 removed "," from "complained that the _Voix du Peuple_" page 109 "bourgeoise" changed to "bourgeoisie" ("alliance of the bourgeoisie and of the working-class")

page 111 footnote reference altered, referred to wrong footnote

page 113 removed " ("stop the offensive movement of the workingmen.")

page 114 missing """ added (""independently of all parliamentarism"")

page 116 "Parlémentaires" changed to "Parlementaires" ("Chambre des Deputés, Débats Parlementaires")

page 117 "Francais" changed to "Fran?ais" ("Parti Socialiste Fran?ais")

page 117 "Jaures" changed to "Jaurès" ("and J. Jaurès outlined a plan according")

page 126 "," replaced with "." ("the strike, the boycott, the label, and sabotage.")

page 127 missing "." added ("It is a revolutionary fact of great value.")

page 129 "merchchandise" change to "merchandise" ("and of perishable merchandise.")

page 130 missing " added to end of phrase ("source of intrigues and of "wire-pulling."")

page 135 "counterbalance" changed to "counter-balance" ("will counter-balance the centralizing tendencies")

page 137 "particulary" changed to "particularly" ("Moreover, the syndicats, particularly")

page 137 "train" changed to "trains" ("The very struggle which the syndicats carry on trains the workingmen")

page 138 "workinmen" changed to "workingmen" ("The mass of workingmen")

page 138 "massess" changed to "masses" ("keep the masses as quiet,")

page 154 "Jaures" changed to "Jaurès" ("by M. Jaurès "the metaphysician of revolutionary syndicalism,"")

page 155 "Movement" changed to "Mouvement" ("Mouvement Socialiste")

page 155 "Sozialwissenchaft" changed to "Sozialwissenschaft" ("Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik")

page 157 "Jaures" changed to "Jaurès" ("just as Kropotkin, Jaurès, Proudhon")

page 158 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("General Confederation of Labor, M. Guérard, wrote,")

page 159 "approfundir" changed to "approfondir" ("his life in the deepening (approfondir)")

page 164 "," replaced with "." ("relations between the adhering federations.")

page 164 "it" replaced with "its" ("This section appoints its own secretary,")

page 169 "idemnity" changed to "indemnity" ("employment bureaus with indemnity in 1901-2.")

page 170 "Economistes" changed to "économistes" ("Journal des économistes")

page 172 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard"("and by M. Guérard, the delegate of the railway workers.")

page 177 "Debats" changed to "Débats" ("Journal des Débats (27 April, 1906), p. 769.")

page 181 "economie" changed to "economic" ("it was an instrument in economic struggles")

page 182 "co?peration" changed to "co-operation" ("a co-operation of various political elements.")

page 187 "," replaced with "." ("of the government. The reports of the")

page 190 "Offie" changed to "Office" ("employees grievances of the Post Office employees")

page 190 missing """ added (""revolutionaries"")

page 191 "co?peration" changed to "co-operation" ("soliciting the co-operation of the government.")

page 196 extra "the" removed ("the passage of the three years'") page 200 missing """ added (""... but particularly divergence of aims."")

page 200 "sydicalists" changed to "syndicalists" ("The third group of revolutionary syndicalists") page 203 "Vivani" changed to "Viviani" ("(e. g., Millerand, Viviani, Briand)")

page 209 "Economistes" changed to "économistes" ("Journal des économistes")

page 211 extra "and" removed ("the strikers at home and creates") page 211 "yeas" changed to "years" ("in recent years")

page 211 "Fèdèration" changed to "Fédération" ("Fédération du Livre")

page 214 "sytematized" changed to "systematized" ("the principles systematized,")

page 224 "Etude" changed to "étude" ("étude historique, économique et juridique sur les coalitions et les grèves")

page 225 "Ecole" changed to "école" ("Conferences organisées a la Société des anciens élèves de l'école libre des Sciences politiques.")

page 226 "Evolution" changed to "évolution" ("Kritsky. L'évolution du syndicalisme en France.")

page 226 "," replaced with "." ("Louis, Paul.") footnote [177] "Les" changed to "Le" ("Le Mouvement Socialiste (May, 1908), p. 390.") ]