Chapter 4 RIVER DEPOSITS

The characteristic features of river deposits and the forms which they assume may be treated under three heads: (1) valley deposits, (2) basin deposits, and (3) deltas.

VALLEY DEPOSITS

FLOOD PLAINS are the surfaces of the alluvial deposits which streams build along their courses at times of flood. A swift current then sweeps along the channel, while a shallow sheet of water moves slowly over the flood plain, spreading upon it a thin layer of sediment. It has been estimated that each inundation of the Nile leaves a layer of fertilizing silt three hundredths of an inch thick over the flood plain of Egypt.

Flood plains may consist of a thin spread of alluvium over the flat rock floor of a valley which is being widened by the lateral erosion of a graded stream (Fig. 60). Flood-plain deposits of great thickness may be built by aggrading rivers even in valleys whose rock floors have never been thus widened.

A cross section of a flood plain shows that it is highest next the river, sloping gradually thence to the valley sides. These wide natural embankments are due to the fact that the river deposit is heavier near the bank, where the velocity of the silt-laden channel current is first checked by contact with the slower-moving overflow.

Thus banked off from the stream, the outer portions of a flood plain are often ill-drained and swampy, and here vegetal deposits, such as peat, may be interbedded with river silts.

A map of a wide flood plain, such as that of the Mississippi or the Missouri (Fig. 77), shows that the courses of the tributaries on entering it are deflected downstream. Why?

The aggrading streams by which flood plains are constructed gradually build their immediate banks and beds to higher and higher levels, and therefore find it easy at times of great floods to break their natural embankments and take new courses over the plain. In this way they aggrade each portion of it in turn by means of their shifting channels,

BRAIDED CHANNELS. A river actively engaged in aggrading its valley with coarse waste builds a flood plain of comparatively steep gradient and often flows down it in a fairly direct course and through a network of braided channels. From time to time a channel becomes choked with waste, and the water no longer finding room in it breaks out and cuts and builds itself a new way which reunites down valley with the other channels. Thus there becomes established a network of ever-changing channels inclosing low islands of sand and gravel.

TERRACES. While aggrading streams thus tend to shift their channels, degrading streams, on the contrary, become more and more deeply intrenched in their valleys. It often occurs that a stream, after having built a flood plain, ceases to aggrade its bed because of a lessened load or for other reasons, such as an uplift of the region, and begins instead to degrade it. It leaves the original flood plain out of reach of even the highest floods. When again it reaches grade at a lower level it produces a new flood plain by lateral erosion in the older deposits, remnants of which stand as terraces on one or both sides of the valley. In this way a valley may be lined with a succession of terraces at different levels, each level representing an abandoned flood plain.

MEANDERS. Valleys aggraded with fine waste form well-nigh level plains over which streams wind from side to side of a direct course in symmetric bends known as meanders, from the name of a winding river of Asia Minor. The giant Mississippi has developed meanders with a radius of one and one half miles, but a little creek may display on its meadow as perfect curves only a rod or so in radius. On the flood plain of either river or creek we may find examples of the successive stages in the development of the meander, from its beginning in the slight initial bend sufficient to deflect the current against the outer side. Eroding here and depositing on the inner side of the bend, it gradually reaches first the open bend whose width and length are not far from equal, and later that of the horseshoe meander whose diameter transverse to the course of the stream is much greater than that parallel with it. Little by little the neck of land projecting into the bend is narrowed, until at last it is cut through and a "cut-off" is established. The old channel is now silted up at both ends and becomes a crescentic lagoon, or oxbow lake, which fills gradually to an arc-shaped shallow depression.

FLOOD PLAINS CHARACTERISTIC OF MATURE RIVERS. On reaching grade a stream planes a flat floor for its continually widening valley. Ever cutting on the outer bank of its curves, it deposits on the inner bank scroll-like flood-plain patches. For a while the valley bluffs do not give its growing meanders room to develop to their normal size, but as planation goes on, the bluffs are driven back to the full width of the meander belt and still later to a width which gives room for broad stretches of flood plain on either side.

Usually a river first attains grade near its mouth, and here first sinks its bed to near baselevel. Extending its graded course upstream by cutting away barrier after barrier, it comes to have a widened and mature valley over its lower course, while its young headwaters are still busily eroding their beds. Its ungraded branches may thus bring down to its lower course more waste than it is competent to carry on to the sea, and here it aggrades its bed and builds a flood plain in order to gain a steeper gradient and velocity enough to transport its load.

As maturity is past and the relief of the land is lessened, a smaller and smaller load of waste is delivered to the river. It now has energy to spare and again degrades its valley, excavating its former flood plains and leaving them in terraces on either side, and at last in its old age sweeping them away.

ALLUVIAL CONES AND FANS. In hilly and mountainous countries one often sees on a valley side a conical or fan-shaped deposit of waste at the mouth of a lateral stream. The cause is obvious: the young branch has not been able as yet to wear its bed to accordant level with the already deepened valley of the master stream. It therefore builds its bed to grade at the point of juncture by depositing here its load of waste,-a load too heavy to be carried along the more gentle profile of the trunk valley.

Where rivers descend from a mountainous region upon the plain they may build alluvial fans of exceedingly gentle slope. Thus the rivers of the western side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains have spread fans with a radius of as much as forty miles and a slope too slight to be detected without instruments, where they leave the rock-cut canyons in the mountains and descend upon the broad central valley of California.

As a river flows over its fan it commonly divides into a branchwork of shifting channels called DISTRIBUTARIES, since they lead off the water from the main stream. In this way each part of the fan is aggraded and its symmetric form is preserved.

PIEDMONT PLAINS. Mountain streams may build their confluent fans into widespread piedmont (foot of the mountain) alluvial plains. These are especially characteristic of arid lands, where the streams wither as they flow out upon the thirsty lowlands and are therefore compelled to lay down a large portion of their load. In humid climates mountain-born streams are usually competent to carry their loads of waste on to the sea, and have energy to spare to cut the lower mountain slopes into foothills. In arid regions foothills are commonly absent and the ranges rise, as from pedestals, above broad, sloping plains of stream-laid waste.

THE HIGH PLAINS. The rivers which flow eastward from the Rocky Mountains have united their fans in a continuous sheet of waste which stretches forward from the base of the mountains for hundreds of miles and in places is five hundred feet thick (Fig. 80). That the deposit was made in ancient times on land and not in the sea is proved by the remains which it contains of land animals and plants of species now extinct. That it was laid by rivers and not by fresh-water lakes is shown by its structure. Wide stretches of flat-lying, clays and sands are interrupted by long, narrow belts of gravel which mark the channels of the ancient streams. Gravels, and sands are often cross bedded, and their well worn pebbles may be identified with the rocks of the mountains. After building this sheet of waste the streams ceased to aggrade and began the work of destruction. Large uneroded remnants, their surfaces flat as a floor, remain as the High Plains of western Kansas and Nebraska.

RIVER DEPOSITS IN SUBSIDING TROUGHS. To a geologist the most important river deposits are those which gather in areas of gradual subsidence; they are often of vast extent and immense thickness, and such deposits of past geological ages have not infrequently been preserved, with all their records of the times in which they were built, by being carried below the level of the sea, to be brought to light by a later uplift. On the other hand, river deposits which remain above baselevels of erosion are swept away comparatively soon.

THE GREAT VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA is a monotonously level plain of great fertility, four hundred miles in length and fifty miles in average width, built of waste swept down by streams from the mountain ranges which inclose it,-the Sierra Nevada on the east and the Coast Range on the west. On the waste slopes at the foot of the bordering hills coarse gravels and even bowlders are left, while over the interior the slow-flowing streams at times of flood spread wide sheets of silt. Organic deposits are now forming by the decay of vegetation in swampy tule (reed) lands and in shallow lakes which occupy depressions left by the aggrading streams.

Deep borings show that this great trough is filled to a depth of at least two thousand feet below sea level with recent unconsolidated sands and silts containing logs of wood and fresh- water shells. These are land deposits, and the absence of any marine deposits among them proves that the region has not been invaded by the sea since the accumulation began. It has therefore been slowly subsiding and its streams, although continually carried below grade, have yet been able to aggrade the surface as rapidly as the region sank, and have maintained it, as at present, slightly above sea level.

THE INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN, spread by the Brahmaputra, the Ganges, and the Indus river systems, stretches for sixteen hundred miles along the southern base of the Himalaya Mountains and occupies an area of three hundred thousand square miles (Fig.342). It consists of the flood plains of the master streams and the confluent fans of the tributaries which issue from the mountains on the north. Large areas are subject to overflow each season of flood, and still larger tracts mark abandoned flood plains below which the rivers have now cut their beds. The plain is built of far- stretching beds of clay, penetrated by streaks of sand, and also of gravel near the mountains. Beds of impure peat occur in it, and it contains fresh-water shells and the bones of land animals of species now living in northern India. At Lucknow an artesian well was sunk to one thousand feet below sea level without reaching the bottom of these river-laid sands and silts, proving a slow subsidence with which the aggrading rivers have kept pace.

WARPED VALLEYS. It is not necessary that an area should sink below sea level in order to be filled with stream-swept waste. High valleys among growing mountain ranges may suffer warping, or may be blockaded by rising mountain folds athwart them. Where the deformation is rapid enough, the river may be ponded and the valley filled with lake-laid sediments. Even when the river is able to maintain its right of way it may yet have its declivity so lessened that it is compelled to aggrade its course continually, filling the valley with river deposits which may grow to an enormous thickness.

Behind the outer ranges of the Himalaya Mountains lie several waste-filled valleys, the largest of which are Kashmir and Nepal, the former being an alluvial plain about as large as the state of Delaware. The rivers which drain these plains have already cut down their outlet gorges sufficiently to begin the task of the removal of the broad accumulations which they have brought in from the surrounding mountains. Their present flood plains lie as much as some hundreds of feet below wide alluvial terraces which mark their former levels. Indeed, the horizontal beds of the Hundes Valley have been trenched to the depth of nearly three thousand feet by the Sutlej River. These deposits are recent or subrecent, for there have been found at various levels the remains of land plants and land and fresh-water shells, and in some the bones of such animals as the hyena and the goat, of species or of genera now living. Such soft deposits cannot be expected to endure through any considerable length of future time the rapid erosion to which their great height above the level of the sea will subject them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RIVER DEPOSITS. The examples just cited teach clearly the characteristic features of extensive river deposits. These deposits consist of broad, flat-lying sheets of clay and fine sand left by the overflow at time of flood, and traversed here and there by long, narrow strips of coarse, cross-bedded sands and gravels thrown down by the swifter currents of the shifting channels. Occasional beds of muck mark the sites of shallow lakelets or fresh-water swamps. The various strata also contain some remains of the countless myriads of animals and plants which live upon the surface of the plain as it is in process of building. River shells such as the mussel, land shells such as those of snails, the bones of fishes and of such land animals as suffer drowning at times of flood or are mired in swampy places, logs of wood, and the stems and leaves of plants are examples of the variety of the remains of land and fresh-water organisms which are entombed in river deposits and sealed away as a record of the life of the time, and as proof that the deposits were laid by streams and not beneath the sea.

BASIN DEPOSITS

DEPOSITS IN DRY BASINS. On desert areas without outlet to the sea, as on the Great Basin of the United States and the deserts of central Asia, stream-swept waste accumulates indefinitely. The rivers of the surrounding mountains, fed by the rains and melting snows of these comparatively moist elevations, dry and soak away as they come down upon the arid plains. They are compelled to lay aside their entire load of waste eroded from the mountain valleys, in fans which grow to enormous size, reaching in some instances thousands of feet in thickness.

The monotonous levels of Turkestan include vast alluvial tracts now in process of building by the floods of the frequently shifting channels of the Oxus and other rivers of the region. For about seven hundred miles from its mouth in Aral Lake the Oxus receives no tributaries, since even the larger branches of its system are lost in a network of distributaries and choked with desert sands before they reach their master stream. These aggrading rivers, which have channels but no valleys, spread their muddy floods-which in the case of the Oxus sometimes equal the average volume of the Mississippi-far and wide over the plain, washing the bases of the desert dunes.

PLAYAS. In arid interior basins the central depressions may be occupied by playas,-plains of fine mud washed forward from the margins. In the wet season the playa is covered with a thin sheet of muddy water, a playa lake, supplied usually by some stream at flood. In the dry season the lake evaporates, the river which fed it retreats, and there is left to view a hard, smooth, level floor of sun-baked and sun-cracked yellow clay utterly devoid of vegetation.

In the Black Rock desert of Nevada a playa lake spreads over an area fifty miles long and twenty miles wide. In summer it disappears; the Quinn River, which feeds it, shrinks back one hundred miles toward its source, leaving an absolutely barren floor of clay, level as the sea.

LAKE DEPOSITS. Regarding lakes as parts of river systems, we may now notice the characteristic features of the deposits in lake basins. Soundings in lakes of considerable size and depth show that their bottoms are being covered with tine clays. Sand and gravel are found along; their margins, being brought in by streams and worn by waves from the shore, but there are no tidal or other strong currents to sweep coarse waste out from shore to any considerable distance. Where fine clays are now found on the land in even, horizontal layers containing the remains of fresh-water animals and plants, uncut by channels tilled with cross-bedded gravels and sands and bordered by beach deposits of coarse waste, we may safely infer the existence of ancient lakes.

MARL. Marl is a soft, whitish deposit of carbonate of lime, mingled often with more or less of clay, accumulated in small lakes whose feeding springs are charged with carbonate of lime and into which little waste is washed from the land. Such lakelets are not infrequent on the surface of the younger drift sheets of Michigan and northern Indiana, where their beds of marl-sometimes as much as forty feet thick-are utilized in the manufacture of Portland cement. The deposit results from the decay of certain aquatic plants which secrete lime carbonate from the water, from the decomposition of the calcareous shells of tiny mollusks which live in countless numbers on the lake floor, and in some cases apparently from chemical precipitation.

PEAT. We have seen how lakelets are extinguished by the decaying remains of the vegetation which they support. A section of such a fossil lake shows that below the growing mosses and other plants of the surface of the bog lies a spongy mass composed of dead vegetable tissue, which passes downward gradually into PEAT,-a dense, dark brown carbonaceous deposit in which, to the unaided eye, little or no trace of vegetable structure remains. When dried, peat forms a fuel of some value and is used either cut into slabs and dried or pressed into bricks by machinery.

When vegetation decays in open air the carbon of its tissues, taken from the atmosphere by the leaves, is oxidized and returned to it in its original form of carbon dioxide. But decomposing in the presence of water, as in a bog, where the oxygen of the air is excluded, the carbonaceous matter of plants accumulates in deposits of peat.

Peat bogs are numerous in regions lately abandoned by glacier ice, where river systems are so immature that the initial depressions left in the sheet of drift spread over the country have not yet been drained. One tenth of the surface of Ireland is said to be covered with peat, and small bogs abound in the drift-covered area of New England and the states lying as far west as the Missouri River. In Massachusetts alone it has been reckoned that there are fifteen billion cubic feet of peat, the largest bog occupying several thousand acres.

Much larger swamps occur on the young coastal plain of the Atlantic from New Jersey to Florida. The Dismal Swamp, for example, in Virginia and North Carolina is forty miles across. It is covered with a dense growth of water-loving trees such as the cypress and black gum. The center of the swamp is occupied by Lake Drummond, a shallow lake seven miles in diameter, with banks of pure-peat, and still narrowing from the encroachment of vegetation along its borders.

SALT LAKES. In arid climates a lake rarely receives sufficient inflow to enable it to rise to the basin rim and find an outlet. Before this height is reached its surface becomes large enough to discharge by evaporation into the dry air the amount of water that is supplied by streams. As such a lake has no outlet, the minerals in solution brought into it by its streams cannot escape from the basin. The lake water becomes more and more heavily charged with such substances as common salt and the sulphates and carbonates of lime, of soda, and of potash, and these are thrown down from solution one after another as the point of saturation for each mineral is reached. Carbonate of lime, the least soluble and often the most abundant mineral brought in, is the first to be precipitated. As concentration goes on, gypsum, which is insoluble in a strong brine, is deposited, and afterwards common salt. As the saltness of the lake varies with the seasons and with climatic changes, gypsum and salt are laid in alternate beds and are interleaved with sedimentary clays spread from the waste brought in by streams at times of flood. Few forms of life can live in bodies of salt water so concentrated that chemical deposits take place, and hence the beds of salt, gypsum, and silt of such lakes are quite barren of the remains of life. Similar deposits are precipitated by the concentration of sea water in lagoons and arms of the sea cut off from the ocean.

LAKES BONNEVILLE AND LAHONTAN. These names are given to extinct lakes which once occupied large areas in the Great Basin, the former in Utah, the latter in northwestern Nevada. Their records remain in old horizontal beach lines which they drew along their mountainous shores at the different levels at which they stood, and in the deposits of their beds. At its highest stage Lake Bonneville, then one thousand feet deep, overflowed to the north and was a fresh-water lake. As it shrank below the outlet it became more and more salty, and the Great Salt Lake, its withered residue, is now depositing salt along its shores. In its strong brine lime carbonate is insoluble, and that brought in by streams is thrown down at once in the form of travertine.

Lake Lahontan never had an outlet. The first chemical deposits to be made along its shores were deposits of travertine, in places eighty feet thick. Its floor is spread with fine clays, which must have been laid in deep, still water, and which are charged with the salts absorbed by them as the briny water of the lake dried away. These sedimentary clays are in two divisions, the upper and lower, each being about one hundred feet thick. They are separated by heavy deposits of well-rounded, cross-bedded gravels and sands, similar to those spread at the present time by the intermittent streams of arid regions. A similar record is shown in the old floors of Lake Bonneville. What conclusions do you draw from these facts as to the history of these ancient lakes?

DELTAS

In the river deposits which are left above sea level particles of waste are allowed to linger only for a time. From alluvial fans and flood plains they are constantly being taken up and swept farther on downstream. Although these land forms may long persist, the particles which compose them are ever changing. We may therefore think of the alluvial deposits of a valley as a stream of waste fed by the waste mantle as it creeps and washes down the valley sides, and slowly moving onwards to the sea.

In basins waste finds a longer rest, but sooner or later lakes and dry basins are drained or filled, and their deposits, if above sea level, resume their journey to their final goal. It is only when carried below the level of the sea that they are indefinitely preserved.

On reaching this terminus, rivers deliver their load to the ocean. In some cases the ocean is able to take it up by means of strong tidal and other currents, and to dispose of it in ways which we shall study later. But often the load is so large, or the tides are so weak, that much of the waste which the river brings in settles at its mouth, there building up a deposit called the DELTA, from the Greek letter of that name, whose shape it sometimes resembles.

Deltas and alluvial fans have many common characteristics. Both owe their origin to a sudden check in the velocity of the river, compelling a deposit of the load; both are triangular in outline, the apex pointing upstream; and both are traversed by distributaries which build up all parts in turn.

In a delta we may distinguish deposits of two distinct kinds,- the submarine and the subaerial. In part a delta is built of waste brought down by the river and redistributed and spread by waves and tides over the sea bottom adjacent to the river's mouth. The origin of these deposits is recorded in the remains of marine animals and plants which they contain.

As the submarine delta grows near to the level of the sea the distributaries of the river cover it with subaerial deposits altogether similar to those of the flood plain, of which indeed the subaerial delta is the prolongation. Here extended deposits of peat may accumulate in swamps, and the remains of land and fresh- water animals and plants swept down by the stream are imbedded in the silts laid at times of flood.

Borings made in the deltas of great rivers such as the Mississippi, the Ganges, and the Nile, show that the subaerial portion often reaches a surprising thickness. Layers of peat, old soils, and forest grounds with the stumps of trees are discovered hundreds of feet below sea level. In the Nile delta some eight layers of coarse gravel were found interbedded with river silts, and in the Ganges delta at Calcutta a boring nearly five hundred feet in depth stopped in such a layer.

The Mississippi has built a delta of twelve thousand three hundred square miles, and is pushing the natural embankments of its chief distributaries into the Gulf at a maximum rate of a mile in sixteen years. Muddy shoals surround its front, shallow lakes, e.g. lakes Pontchartrain and Borgne, are formed between the growing delta and the old shore line, and elongate lakes and swamps are inclosed between the natural embankments of the distributaries.

The delta of the Indus River, India, lies so low along shore that a broad tract of country is overflowed by the highest tides. The submarine portion of the delta has been built to near sea level over so wide a belt offshore that in many places large vessels cannot come even within sight of land because of the shallow water.

A former arm of the sea, the Rann of Cutch, adjoining the delta on the east has been silted up and is now an immense barren flat of sandy mud two hundred miles in length and one hundred miles in greatest breadth. Each summer it is flooded with salt water when the sea is brought in by strong southwesterly monsoon winds, and the climate during the remainder of the year is hot and dry. By the evaporation of sea water the soil is thus left so salty that no vegetation can grow upon it, and in places beds of salt several feet in thickness have accumulated. Under like conditions salt beds of great thickness have been formed in the past and are now found buried among the deposits of ancient deltas.

SUBSIDENCE OF GREAT DELTAS. As a rule great deltas are slowly sinking. In some instances upbuilding by river deposits has gone on as rapidly as the region has subsided. The entire thickness of the Ganges delta, for example, so far as it has been sounded, consists of deposits laid in open air. In other cases interbedded limestones and other sedimentary rocks containing marine fossils prove that at times subsidence has gained on the upbuilding and the delta has been covered with the sea.

It is by gradual depression that delta deposits attain enormous thickness, and, being lowered beneath the level of the sea, are safely preserved from erosion until a movement of the earth's crust in the opposite direction lifts them to form part of the land. We shall read later in the hard rocks of our continent the records of such ancient deltas, and we shall not be surprised to find them as thick as are those now building at the mouths of great rivers.

LAKE DELTAS. Deltas are also formed where streams lose their velocity on entering the still waters of lakes. The shore lines of extinct lakes, such as Lake Agassiz and Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan, may be traced by the heavy deposits at the mouths of their tributary streams.

We have seen that the work of streams is to drain the lands of the water poured upon them by the rainfall, to wear them down, and to carry their waste away to the sea, there to be rebuilt by other agents into sedimentary rocks. The ancient strata of which the continents are largely made are composed chiefly of material thus worn from still more ancient lands-lands with their hills and valleys like those of to-day-and carried by their rivers to the ocean. In all geological times, as at the present, the work of streams has been to destroy the lands, and in so doing to furnish to the ocean the materials from which the lands of future ages were to be made. Before we consider how the waste of the land brought in by streams is rebuilt upon the ocean floor, we must proceed to study the work of two agents, glacier ice and the wind, which cooperate with rivers in the denudation of the land.